Why "Apocrypha"?
Apocrypha, that is: hidden or spurious, is the name given, in Protestant usage, to certain books dating from the end of the Old Testament period. Catholic usage calls them Deuterocanonical, i.e. having been included in the canon at a second (deutero) phase - through their adoption as holy writ by the Greek-speaking early Christian Church. St. Jerome, around A.D. 400, was the first Christian scholar to explicitly distinguish these libri ecclesiastici from the libri canonici of the Hebrew Bible.
In 1534, Martin Luther followed Jerome in prioritising "Veritas Hebraica" - that is, regarding as Old Testament only those books originally written in Hebrew. Accordingly, he relegated the books of Maccabees and other writings that were written in Greek to the appendix of his Bible translation, calling them "Apocrypha", books not to be reverenced as Holy Scripture but which are useful to read."
We must note that these Apocrypha were part of the wider Septuagint (Greek translation of the Bible). In the Catholic Church these "Apocrypha" have been included in the Bible, under the collective name "deutero-canonical" since the Council of Trent in 1546. Following Martin Luther's estimate, Protestants have generally excluded them from their shorter, Hebrew-based canon of the Old Testament.
The Old Testament Apocrypha include fourteen texts, the chief of which are the two Books of Maccabees, Wisdom, Baruch, Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, Judith and parts of Esther. These indeed found a place in the LXX. and Latin Vulgate versions of the Old Testament, but were regarded with suspicion by Martin Luther and the early Reformers - even though they were still included in all biblical translations made during the sixteenth century
Notes on the Book of Tobit
Edifying Fiction
Although Tobit, Judith and Esther seem at first glance to be presented as history, the events they relate are not attested by any non-biblical sources. On detailed inspection, they are seen to treat some known facts of history and geography with a great deal of freedom. They may be fairly estimated as devout didactic fiction, stories that were composed in order to teach patriotism and morality. Perhaps for this reason that some of the early Greek manuscripts of the Bible placed them among the Wisdom writings.
Tobit is clearly a didactic fiction of this kind. It includes such charming details as Toby's dog that accompanies him on his journey, and the miraculous fish that he caught in the river Tigris. It weaves together such strands as a dutiful son, a loyal Jewish kinsman and a devout Jewish marriage in the face of heavy odds, all helped by a benign angel in disguise.
Although set in the period of Assyrian rule (7th century B.C.), the story was composed centuries later, probably about the year 200 BC, among exiled Jews of the Diaspora, in Mesopotamia or Egypt, to urge them to be faithful to their religious and moral traditions. Since it bears no imprint of the turmoil under Antiochus Epiphanes, or the Maccabean revolt, it must come from before 180 BC. Its considerable confusion concerning 7th century Assyrian history (where the story is ostensibly set), plus its clear reflection of such post-exilic customs as tithing, and acceptance of the prophets as canonical Scripture, suggest a time of composition not much earlier than 200 BC. Tobit was not accepted into the Hebrew Bible, and was acknowledged by the Christian Church only after considerable hesitancy in the patristic period. St. Jerome, who did not regard it as canonical, agreed to translate it into Latin, from Aramaic, with the help of an Aramaic interpreter. This led to its inclusion in the Vulgate, and hence to its bing declared canonical by the council of Trent.
Criticism is divided regarding the language in which Tobit was originally written. The manuscript tradition has three quite distinguishable Greek editions (or recensions) of Tobit. Perhaps the oldest of these, in the Codex Sinaiticus, has a strongly Semitic flavour that some scholars see as reflecting a Hebrew original. Discovery of some Aramaic fragments of Tobit at Qumran could even indicate an Aramaic original. It is, however, possible that it came into existence among Greek-speaking Diaspora Jews, and was later translated into Hebrew or Aramaic, in Palestine.
A devout Jew, Tobit, in exile in Assyria, is staunchly faithful to the traditions and good works of his own people. Tobit's unusual virtue is stressed: at considerable personal cost, he paid special attention to clothing the naked and burying the dead. Still, he meets with misfortune and loses his sight. In better times, as an official in king Shalmaneser's administration, Tobit has deposited a large sum of money with a cousin, Gabael, in Media. Now he wishes his son Tobias to journey to that foreign land and recover the money. His wife Anna reproaches him for excessive piety; but Tobit continues to trust in God and to worship. His prayer (ch. 3) is a model of patience and penitence.
Meanwhile, in another part of Media, a young Jewish woman, Sarah, daughter of Raguel - another relative of Tobit's, is going through a grief of her own. She is almost suicidal, because, having been married in succession to seven husbands; but each of them died on their wedding night, killed by the demon Asmodeus. Sarah is childless, and now despairs of ever having a husband with whom to raise a family. She rejects suicide, because of the grief it would bring to her parents. So we first meet her, sitting in her room and praying a prayer of lament.
God hears both of these prayers of distress, and sends an angel (Raphael) to resolve the problems of both petitioners. Raphael also features as guide and companion (Guardian Angel!) to young Tobias, on his journey to Media to collect Tobit's old loan. The angel, disguised as a young man, and calling himself Azariah, leads Tobias to Raguel's house and encourages him to seek the unfortunate Sarah as a wife. In a comical scene, the girl's parents, Raguel and Edna, quietly have a grave dug in the garden, fully expecting that the young bridegroom will not survive the wedding night. But Tobias and his bride pray by their bedside, so that the spell was broken; happily, the grave could be filled in before daybreak.
While Tobias joins in the joyous fourteen-day wedding feast in Raguel's house, the angel Raphael takes care of collecting old Tobit's money from Gabael, who comes to meet his young relative and is delighted to seem him the very image of my cousin Tobit. The Jewish family bond is more than ever important, in the Diaspora!
As Tobias' journey to and from Media has taken so long, his elderly parents are sick with worry for his return. In a nice touch, Anna refuses to let her husband comfort her with words of hope: When the sun had set she would go in and mourn and weep all night long (10:7). When, finally, the newly-weds return to Niniveh, to the Tobias heals his father's blindness with the remedy given him by the angel. Tobit praised God at the top of his voice (11:15). Then the angel reveals his true identity, explaining that I was sent to heal you and Sarah your daughter-in-law. I am Raphael, one of the seven angels who stand before the glory of the Lord (12:15). In response to this, there comeis another canticle of true Jewish prayer from Tobit.
Tobit and his wife die after living to a ripe old age (he, aged 112 years; and she dies after him) - but not before passing one final words of wisdom to his son, predicting the future fall of Niniveh (14:3) and the invasion of Samaria and Judea. He advises Tobias to move to Media, which will be a safer place than Assyria or Babylon; and he gives practical advice on how to live a faithful Jewish life in the diaspora. The book ends on a suitably edifying note: Tobias (who lived to be 117 years!) praised God for all he had done to the people of Niveveh... and he blessed the Lord God for ever and ever. Amen
A. Distress in Ecbatana and Nineveh (1:1-3:17)
1. Title (1:1-2)
2. Tobit's virtuous life (1:3-22)
3. Tobit's distress and prayer (2:1-3:6)
4. Sarah's distress and prayer (3:7-15)
5. Raphael's commision (3:16-17)
B. Preparing for the journey (4:1-6:1)
1. Tobit's speech (4:1-21)
2. Hiring of Raphael (5:1-6:1)
C. Tobias' Journey with Raphael (6:2-18)
1. The angel, the dog and the miraculous fish (6:2-9)
2. Raphael's advice: marry Sarah (6:10-18)
D. Solutions Found (7:1-11:18)
1. Sarah's healing (7:1-8:21)
2. Recovery of Tobit's money (9:1-6)
3. Tobit's healing (10:1-11:18)
E. Conclusion (12:1-14:15)
1. Revelation of Raphael (12:1-20)
2. Tobit's prayer (13:1-18)
3. Epilogue (14:1-15)
Named after its alleged author, a Jewish exile living in "the Assyrian capital of Nineveh" in the late 8th and 7th centuries B.C., the book is regarded as noncanonical or "apocryphal" by Jews and Protestants and, since the decrees of the Council of Trent in 1546, is termed "deuterocanonical" by Roman Catholics.
The Story: Writing in Nineveh, where he had been in exile since the days of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser (V, 727-722 B.C.), Tobit son of Tobiel, a native of Thisbe in Naphtali, tells how he, unlike most Israelites of the N kingdom, had been a righteous and observant Jew, worshipping in Jerusalem as prescribed by the law of Moses. Raised by his grandmother, Tobit married Anna, who was also of his tribe, and by her had a son, Tobiah.
In Nineveh, Tobit had continued to follow God's Law, observing the laws of kašrût and doing such charitable acts as feeding the hungry, providing clothing for the naked, and burying Jewish corpses exposed by the king. God rewarded him for all this by making him Shalmaneser's purchasing agent.
But when Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.), Shalmaneser's son and successor, expressly prohibited the burial of those executed by the state, Tobit ignored the edict. His defiance discovered, Tobit's property was confiscated by the crown and, had he not fled for his life, he would have been executed. Two months later, Sennacherib was murdered and succeeded by his son Esarhaddon (681-669 B.C.), who promptly appointed Tobit's nephew, Ahikar son of Anael, as his chief financial minister. Through the latter's intercession Tobit was reinstated (chap. 1).
Sending Tobiah out to invite some poor compatriot to share their festal meal of Pentecost (i.e., Feast of Weeks), Tobit learned from him of another Jewish corpse in the marketplace. Only after Tobit had rescued the corpse did he finish his dinner.
After many adventures, the story has a happy ending. In later life, Tobias took his family to Ecbatana and settled there, taking loving care of Raguel and Edna. A very wealthy and charitable man until his death at the age of 117, Tobias lived to see the destruction of Nineveh by the Median king Ahasuerus as well as the satisfying spectacle of Assyrians being brought prisoners to Ecbatana (chap. 14).
The influence of a number of OT stories, themes, and images are clearly evident in the book: the patient suffering of Job (Job 1:1-2:10; 42:10b-17), the betrothal scenes of Isaac and Jacob (Genesis 24, 29), the Joseph story (Genesis 37, 39-50), and the theology of Deuteronomy, to name but a few.
Finally, it contains certain geographical and historical errors that argue against the story's being essentially historical, although it may very well reflect actual living conditions of Jews of the Eastern Diaspora. What will not be evident to everyone reading the summary of the tale is that its author used, in varying degrees, several secular tales that were well known throughout the ancient world, notably, "The Grateful Dead," "The Monster in the Bridal Chamber," and "The Story of Ahiqar."
Notes on the Book of Judith
Literary form: Edifying Fiction
The Book of Judith met with a hesitant acceptance into the Canon. Its name (The Jewess) suggests its heroic, edifying literary form. Its unreal background makes it unlikely that the author intends to narrate history. Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon (605-562 B.C.), a well-known figure under whom the Jews endured their memorable exile, is here given as king of Assyria, residing in Nineveh - in fact, an empire and city destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar's father. The strategic city of Bethulia is otherwise unknown, and is part of the fiction within this highly engaging narrative.
The book comes very likely from the Maccabean period (mid-second century B.C.), written to encourage the Jews in their military resistance to the paganizing Seleucids. Hellenistic features include reclining while eating (12:15); wearing garlands at banquets (15:13) and worshiping the king as a god (3:8). Maccabean or Hasmonean elements include the political and military powers of the high priest (4:6-7) and the supremacy of the Jerusalem Sanhedrin.
The author is unknown. While the book's style suggests that it was composed in a Semitic tongue (Hebrew or Aramaic), it was mainly known in Greek translation; it is in the form that it was cited by Clement of Rome, who adduces the examples of both Judith and Esther (1 Clem. 55, c. 95 A.D.)
An invading army is defeated by the courage of one godly woman, who gains access to the enemy camp and assassinates their commander, Holofernes. She achieves her aims by an implicit seduction, willing to risk whatever it might take, to save her people. Like the Israelite heroes of bygone times - like Joshua, Jephte, Samson and David - her methods of war are not subjected to rigorous examination, since her goal is the people's survival. The book of Judith is a profession of faith in God's protection, no matter how dire the danger.
Outline of the Book of Judith
A. Israel in Mortal Peril (1:1-7:32)
1. Nebuchadnezzar's Campaign against Arphaxad (1:1-16)
2. Holofernes Assigned to Quell the Western Rebels (2:1-13)
3. Holofernes Attacks the Rebel Nations (2:14-7:32)
a) Early Campaign; Most Others surrender (2:14-3:10)
b) Israel is Terrified; but Joakim says: No Surrender (4:1-15)
c) Achior Explains Israel's Customs; is Expelled (5:1-6:13)
d) Achior to Bethulia; Tells what he knows (6:14-21)
e) Holofernes Orders a Siege; Israelites in Terror (7:1-15)
f) Siege of Bethulia; Her People Want to Surrender (7:6-32)
B. Through Judith, Yahweh Triumphs over Assyria (8:1-16:25)
1. Judith's History and Virtue (8:1-8)
2. She Plans to Save Israel (8:9-10:9a)
a) Her Advice to the Elders (8:9-27)
b) Uzziah asks her to intercede with God (8:28-
c) Judith's Prayer for divine help (9:1-14)
3. She Carries out her Plan (10:1-13:11)
a) Judith dresses to seduce the enemy (10:1-8)
b) Judith Goes to the Assyrian Camp (10:9-19)
c) Judith wins the Admiration of Holofernes (10:20-11:23)
d) Holofernes invites Judith to his banquet (12:1-20)
e) She Beheads drunken Holofernes (13:1-10a)
f) Judith and her Maid Return to Bethulia (13:10b-11)
4. Israel's Enemies Are Destroyed (13:12-16:20)
a) Judith's Song of Triumph (13:12-17)
b) Uzziah's Praise of her Valour (13:18-20)
c) Judith's Advice, to Counterattack (14:1-5)
d) Achior's Conversion to Judaism (14:6-10)
e) Holofernes' Death Is Discovered (14:11-19)
f) The Jews rout their leaderless enemies (15:1-7)
g) The Jews Celebrate Their Victory (15:8-14)
h) Judith's Hymn of Praise (16:1-20)
5. The Renown and Death of Judith (16:21-25)
Context and narrative of Judith
(abridged from The Anchor Bible Dictionary)
Content of the book: In the twelfth year of his reign Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Assyrians, left his capital Nineveh to wage war against the Median king, Arphaxad. While many of Nebuchadnezzar's subjects in the east rallied to his aid, those in the west, from Cilicia in the north to Ethiopia in the south, scoffed at his appeal for help. Unable to do anything about it at the time, he swore that some day he would punish them for it. Finally, in his 18th year (the year after he had destroyed Arphaxad and his "invincible" city, Ecbatana) Nebuchadnezzar decided to avenge himself on the west (chap. 1).
Summoning Holofernes, his greatest general, Nebuchadnezzar spelled out his plans for revenge: those nations who would submit to Holofernes by offering tokens of earth and water Nebuchadnezzar would personally deal with later; meanwhile those refusing to submit to Holofernes were to be slaughtered and looted without mercy.
Holofernes marshals an enormous army and treks to Bectileth in N Cilicia in just three days. Then the army hacks its way through Put and Lud, plundering Rassisites and Ishmaelites in the process. Crossing the Euphrates and proceeding through Mesopotamia, he razes the walled towns and occupies Cilicia. Many people and towns are destroyed by him, and the seacoast towns of Sidon, Tyre and Ascalon throw themselves on his mercy. But Holofernes tears down their sanctuaries and sacred poles, and orders all to worship Nebuchadnezzar alone as God.
Holofernes advances toward Esdraelon and the Israelites in Judea, who only a short time before had returned from exile and had just recently rededicated their Temple at Jerusalem, are terrified. The territory of Samaria and cities like Kona, Beth-horon, Belmain, and Jericho secure their hilltops and prepare for war. Joakim, the high priest in Jerusalem at the time, specifically orders the town of Bethulia to secure the passes (since access to Judea and Jerusalem was through a narrow pass.)
All the Jews, priests, men, women, children, even animals are in sackcloth, fasting and praying for themselves and especially for their Temple at Jerusalem (chap 4).
When Holofernes learns of this resistance, he is surprised and angered. Demanding information on the Israelites, he gets it from the Ammonite leader, Achior, who gives a reverential version of their history. "And as long as they did not sin against their god," Achior said, "they prospered." If these people were sinning now, Achior was certain, their god would let the Assyrians conquer them. But if not, then the Assyrians could not defeat them (chap. 5).
Holofernes and his staff scoff at Achior's counsel. He "rewarded" Achior by setting him in a place where the Israelites might find him and adopt him as a friend. Thus, Achior would share their fate, death at the hands of the Assyrians.
Once the Bethulians found Achior and heard his story, they renew their prayers while Uzziah, their chief magistrate, took Achior into his own home (chap. 6).
Holofernes, on the advice of the leaders of Esau and Moab, seized the water sources of Bethulia, thereby assuring that the town would die either of starvation or thirst. And indeed after thirty-four days of siege, the cisterns of Bethulia were going dry and its people were collapsing in the streets. The situation was so desperate that its citizens demanded that their magistrates surrender the city, arguing that it was better to be living Assyrian slaves than "free" Israelite corpses. Uzziah offered them a compromise: if there was no relief from God within the next five days, then they would surrender the city (chap. 7).
Everyone in Bethulia wants to accept the compromise except one person, Judith, daughter of Merari. This beautiful young widow of Manasseh was known for her piety (since the untimely death of her husband almost three and a half years earlier, she had devoted herself to prayer and to fasting on all days except when they were prohibited). No one ever spoke ill of her. She summoned the three magistrates to her place and upbraided them, scolding them for trying to put God to the test. She insisted that God will do as he pleases, unmoved by the ploys of men. God might very well be testing his people in the present crisis, for, unlike some earlier occasions, he was not punishing them now inasmuch as they had not sinned against him. To Uzziah's snide suggestion that she, being such a righteous woman, should intercede for the people, Judith offered a counterproposal: she and her maid would leave town that night, and within five days the Lord would deliver Israel by her hand. The magistrates promptly gave herheir blessing (chap. 8).
First of all Judith, covered with sackcloth and ashes, prays to the Lord, begging him for the same support he had granted her ancestor Simeon when he avenged Hamor's rape of Dinah. She begs God to crush the Assyrian forces threatening Jerusalem and its Temple. She also prays for a beguiling tongue and a strong hand to overthrow her enemy (chap. 9).
After her spiritual preparation, Judith bathes and puts on her most fetching attire, so that every male who sees her is struck by her beauty. Then, with the blessing of the town fathers, she and her maidservant leave Bethulia, taking with them only enough kosher rations for a few days.
As the two make their way through the valley, they are arrested by an Assyrian patrol, who, captivated by Judith's beauty, ended up personally escorting them to Holofernes' tent (chap. 10). Holofernes' efforts to reassure Judith are unnecessary, for she immediately took charge. She flatters him on his accomplishments, and assures him that "God will accomplish something through you." Judith confirms Achior's words to the Assyrians: Israel could not fall to the Assyrians unless it had sinned against God-and, Israel was about to do exactly that! The siege of Bethulia would shortly prompt its citizens to eat and drink things forbidden by their God. When this occurs, then she herself would guide Holofernes' army to Jerusalem without loss of life or limb.
Holofernes believes her every word (chap. 11). To his invitation that she share his dinner, Judith declines, insisting that "Your servant will not exhaust her [kosher] supplies before the Lord God accomplishes by my hand what he has planned."
Until late that night and for the next three days Judith stays in her own tent, leaving the Assyrian camp only at night to bathe and then pray, after which she would eat her one meal of the day. But on the fourth day Holofernes, intent on seducing her, invites her to a small dinner party in his tent. Judith accepts his invitation, saying, "I will do whatever 'my lord' desires right away, and it will be something to boast of until my dying day."
Fired with lust, Holofernes drinks so much wine (chap. 12) that he is sprawled on his couch, dead drunk. Judith, taking his sword and praying for strength, strikes Holofernes' neck twice, chopping his head off and rolling his body onto the floor. Next she takes his canopy and has her maid drop the head into her sack. The two of them then, as usual, leave the camp "to pray."
Arriving in Bethulia, Judith tells everyone what God had done, how he has shattered the enemy by the hand of a mere female. Offering Holofernes' head as evidence, she assures them that her "honour" is still intact (chap. 13).
On the next day, the Bethulians are to act as if they were coming down to fight, whereupon the Assyrians would alert their general, only to find him and themselves headless. Then the Israelites would attack. Of course, it all happens exactly as Judith had planned. The Assyrians panick on learning about Holofernes (chap. 14). Not only did the Bethulians attack them, but so did Israelites from all their cities far and wide, pursuing the Assyrians as far as Damascus. Looting the Assyrian camp took an entire month, during which time the high priest Joakim and the Jewish Council came down from Jerusalem to visit the scene and congratulate Judith. Then she and the people gradually worked their way toward Jerusalem, the women dancing along the route and the warriors, armed and garlanded, marching behind them (chap. 15).
Once back home, Judith remains there for the rest of her life. Although many men wanted her, she remained a celibate. Before dying at the ripe old age of 105, she manumits her faithful maidservant and distributes her property among her closest relatives on both sides of the family. For the rest of Judith's life and for a long time afterward, no one dares to threaten her people (chap. 16).
This detailed summary lets the reader perceive the book's strengths and weaknesses. The story, at least as presented in the Greek, is well told, especially chapters 10-13, which are a masterpiece of irony. The character and personality of both Judith and Holofernes are vividly drawn. (Even supporting characters like Nebuchadnezzar, Uzziah, and Achior seem to have a life of their own.) And whether or not one agrees with the book's theology and ethics, its religious concerns and values are effectively expressed in the story's plot, speeches, and prayers. Nonetheless, any desire to take this story as a historical account fairly bristles with problems.
The most flagrant inaccuracies are those in the opening verse: "It was in the twelfth year of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar, who ruled over the Assyrians from his capital Nineveh . . . ," because, as most students of the Bible know, Nebuchadnezzar was king of Babylonia, not Assyria, and Nineveh was destroyed in 612 B.C., that is, several years before Nebuchadnezzar came to the throne.
As for the book's geographical errors, Holofernes' enormous army accomplished the 300-mile trek from Nineveh to N Cilicia in three days (2:21), then fought its way through Put and Lud ([2:23], countries usually identified by scholars as Libya in Africa and Lydia in Asia Minor), only to find itself crossing the Euphrates and going west through Mesopotamia (2:24) to Cilicia (2:25)! Even though Holofernes' itinerary along the Palestinian coast appears more geographically correct, his attack against Bethulia and Judea seems to come from the north (cf. 4:6; 8:21; 11:14, 19); yet 7:17-18 suggests that his attack came from the south.
With 4:6, geographical errors give place to geographical ignorance and uncertainty, for five of the eight Israelite cities mentioned there are unidentifiable. Worst of all, the location of Bethulia, which is mentioned 19 times in the text (but nowhere else in the Bible!) and whose setting includes a number of geographical and topographical clues (cf. 3:10; 4:6; 6:11; 7:12-13; 10:10-11; 11:19) is totally unknown. See BETHULIA (PLACE). Nonetheless, some historical atlases "locate" it on one of their maps.
All this being the case, it is perhaps a bit surprising that Achior's summary of Israel's history is (given, of course, its brevity and purpose) a reasonably accurate one, albeit from a Deuteronomistic point of view.
Compositional analysis proves that the book is an integral unit and was intended from the beginning as a balanced and proportional narrative. Each half of the book has a threefold chiastic structure and a distinctive thematic repetition, namely, fear or its denial in Judith 1-7, and beauty and its effects in 8-16. In terms of both content and form, then, Section D (Judith's triumph over Holofernes) is the heart of the story as well as the center of the chiastic structure.
In some respects, the book of Judith is misnamed. Its message and structure would have been more clearly perceived if down through the ages it had had a more appropriate title, such as "Beast and the Beauty."
Notes on the Book of Baruch
A Late Wisdom Text
The association of this collection of disparate texts with the name of Jeremiah testifies to that prophet's enduring reputation. Issued under the name of Baruch, Jeremiah's secretary (Jer 32:12; 36:4), its contents include a prayer, a wisdom poem, a prophetic passage, and a letter setting out the arguments against idolatry. The style of the letter would date it in the Greek period; the other sections are difficult to date and may be as late as the 2nd or 1st century B.C. (Jerusalem Bible).
If, as seems very likely, the original was penned in Hebrew or Aramaic, it would have originated among Palestinian Jews. And while the first and last sections have close affinities with prophetic traditions, the middle section (3:9 - 4:4) is unmistakably the product of traditional Israelite wisdom, having obvious points of contact with such works as Job and Sirach... (R. C. Dentan, Baruch, in Oxford Companion to the Bible, 76.) The author was probably a teacher, a wise man of the type of Ben Sirach. His purpose was to bring a message of reconciliation and hope to the diaspora Jewish community whose exile, in the Hellenistic period, had become virtually permanent.
Outline of the Book of Baruch
A. Confessions and Prayer of Baruch (1:1-3:8)
1. Narrator's introduction (1:1-14)
2. Confession of Sins (1:15-2:10)
3. The Prayer (2:11-3:8)
B. A Wisdom Poem (3:9-4:4)
1. The Importance of Wisdom (3:9-14)
2. No man can find Wisdom (3:15-28)
3. God gives Wisdom through the Law (3:29-4:4)
C. Prophetic Sermon (4:5-5:9)
1. The prophet addresses the Diaspora (4:5-9a)
2. Jerusalem addresses her neighbours (4:9b-16)
3. Jerusalem assured of Help (4:30-5:9)
D. The Letter of Jeremiah (6:1-72)
(1.) The secretary of the prophet Jeremiah (32:12; 36:4), he was of the tribe of Judah (51:59). To him Jeremiah dictated his prophecies regarding the invasion of the Babylonians and the Captivity. These he read to the people from a window in the temple in the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim, king of Judah (Jer. 36). He afterwards read them before the counsellors of the king at a private interview; and then to the king himself, who, after hearing a part of the roll, cut it with a penknife, and threw it into the fire of his winter parlour, where he was sitting.
During the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, he was the keeper of the deed of purchase Jeremiah had made of the territory of Hanameel (Jer. 32:12). Being accused by his enemies of favouring the Chaldeans, he was cast, with Jeremiah, into prison, where he remained till the capture of Jerusalem (586 BC.). He probably died in Babylon. (2.) Neh. 3:20; 10:6; 11:5.
Notes on the 1st Book of Maccabees
Its value and canonical status
The two books of the Maccabees tell us much about beliefs in the later Old Testament period, and especially about the situation of the Jews between the Greeks and the Romans in the middle of the 2nd century B.C. The background of both books is the vigorous Jewish resistance to the Hellenisation programme of their Seleucid overlords. While the books of the Maccabees were not accepted into the Jewish canon - probably on the grounds of their late appearance - the early Christian Church recognized them after an initial period of doubt. Thinking that they were not originally composed in Hebrew, St Jerome also regarded them with some suspicion, and they were relegated to the Apocrypha by Martin Luther. In the Catholic Church both books of the Maccabees have been counted as deutero-canonical since the Council of Trent in 1546
1 Maccabees is by far the more historical in its narrative, covering the critical forty years from 175 to 134 B.C., when the nation's independence was won through the struggle, under the Maccabean leadership. The author, who must have written before 63 B.C. (when the Jews came under Roman rule), modelled his writing on the ancient chronicles of Israel, interspersing it with suitable speeches of faith and of encouragement. It is in effect an apologia for the Hasmonean monarchy, and other families are not allowed to steal the limelight. It is stressed that the sons of Mattathias: Judas, Simon and their brothers exposed themselves to danger and resisted the enemies of their nation, in order that their sanctuary and the law might be preserved; and they brought great glory to their nation. (1 Macc. 14:29)
- Summary of Alexander's Conquests (1:1ff)
- Mattathias's lament at the Apostasy (2:4ff)
- Prowess of Judas (3:1-9)
- Defeat and Death of Judas (9:7-22)
(more fully analyzed, in the Outline)
A. The causes of the revolt (1:1-64)
B. Mattathias initiates violent resistance (2:1-70)
C. Judas Maccabeus as Commander (3:1-9:22)
D. Jonathan as Commander (9:23-12:53)
E. Simon as Commander (13:1-16:24)
Outline of 1 Maccabees
A. The causes of the revolt (1:1-64)
1. Alexander and his Successors (1:1-9)
2. Hellenization of Jerusalem (1:10-15)
3. Antiochus's First Campaign in Egypt (1:16-19)
4. Antiochus Despoils the Temple (1:20-24a)
5. Lament (1:24b-28)
6. Apollonius Attacks Jerusalem (1:29-36)
7. Lament (1:37-40)
8. Antiochus Decrees Pagan Practices (1:41-51a)
9. This Edict is Carried Out (1:51b-64)
B. Mattathias initiates violent resistance (2:1-70)
1. Mattathias and his sons (2:1-14)
2. Violent resistance begins (2:15-28)
3. The slaughter on the Sabbath and its sequel (2:29-41)
4. The Hasideans (2:42-48)
5. Mattathias's Testament (2:49-70)
C. Under Judas Maccabeus as Commander (3:1-9:22)
1. Prowess of Judas (3:1-9)
2. Judas defeats Apollonius and Seron (3:10-26)
3. Antiochus Goes East (3:27-37)
4. Judas defeats Gorgias and Nicanor (3:38-4:25)
5. Lysias Defeated by Judas, at Beth-zur (4:26-35)
6. The Cleansing and Dedication of the Temple (4:36-61)
7. Judas Battles with neighbouring Peoples (5:1-68)
8. The Death of Antiochus IV Epiphanes (6:1-17)
9. Siege of the Citadel (6:18-27)
10. Lysias's Second Campaign in Judah (6:28-63)
11. Expedition of Bacchides and Alcimus (7:1-25)
12. Defeat of Nicanor (7:26-50)
13. Judas's Treaty with the Romans (8:1-32)
14. Bacchides Returns with Force (9:1-6)
15. Defeat and Death of Judas (9:7-22)
D. Under Jonathan as Commander (9:23-12:53)
1. Jonathan Succeeds Judas as Leader (9:23-34)
2. Jonathan Avenges his brother John (9:35-42)
3. Bacchides Ambushes Jonathan (9:43-49)
4. Bacchides Fortifies Judea; Alcimus Dies (9:50-57)
5. Jonathan Escapes and Frustrates Bacchides (9:58-73)
6. Balas claims Demetrius's Throne (10:1-14)
7. Jonathan Becomes High Priest (10:15-50)
8. at Alexander's marriage, Jonathan is Promoted (10:51-66)
9. Jonathan defeats Apollonius (10:67-89)
10. Ptolemy invades Syria (11:1-12)
11. Deaths of Alexander and Ptolemy (11:13-19)
12. Jonathan Parts from Demetrius (11:20-37)
13. Trypho's Intrigue against Demetrius (11:38-40)
14. Jonathan helps Demetrius (11:41-53)
15. Jonathan's Alliance with Trypho 11:54-62)
16. War between Jonathan and Demetrius (11:63-74)
17. Treaties of Friendship with Rome and Sparta (12:1-23)
18. Military Activities of Jonathan and Simon (12:24-38)
19. Capture of Jonathan (12:39-53)
E. Under Simon as Commander (13:1-16:24)
1. Simon Becomes Leader of the Jews (13:1-11)
2. Simon Blocks Trypho (13:12-24)
3. Simon Builds a Family Monument at Modin (13:25-30)
4. Simon Joins Demetrius II (13:31-42)
5. Simon captures Gazara and the Citadel (13:45-53)
6. Demetrius II is Captured by the Parthians (14:1-3)
7. Eulogy of Simon (14:4-15)
8. Renewal of Alliances with Rome and Sparta (14:16-24)
9. Decree of the Jews honouring Simon (14:25-49)
10. Antiochus VII favours Simon; besieges Trypho (15:1-14)
11. Return of the Embassy sent to Rome (15:15-24)
12. Antiochus Breaks Alliance with Simon (15:25-36)
13. Hyrcanus and Judas Defeat Cendebaeus (15:37-16:10)
14. The murder of Simon and his Two Sons (16:11-22)
15. Conclusion to 1 Macc (16:23-24)
1 and 2 Maccabees recount the exploits of Judas Maccabeus, who forcefully opposed the efforts of Antiochus Epiphanes to suppress traditional worship and institutions in Jerusalem and Judea. "The Maccabee" has become an everlasting hero of world history thanks in part to the later works of Dante (Divina Commedia, Paradiso 18:40-42) and Handel (in his oratorio of 1747). Annually, during the festival of Hanukkah, Jews in all countries commemorate the rededication of the Temple. The story of those events is recounted not so much in the rabbinical writings as in the apocrypha of the Christian tradition: the two books of Maccabees have not been preserved within the Hebrew Bible but within the Greek-language LXX, which the Christians adopted from the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria. Both 1 and 2 Maccabees were regarded as more or less authoritative by the early Church; St. Jerome, around A.D. 400, was the first Christian to explicitly distinguish these libri ecclesiastici from the libri canonici of the Hebrew Bible.
In 1534, Martin Luther relegated both books of Maccabees and some other writings from the LXX (Septuagint) to the appendix of his translation of the Bible, calling them "Apocrypha, that is, books which are not to be equated with Holy Scripture and yet which are useful and good to read." In the Catholic Church these "Apocrypha" have been included in the Bible, under the collective name "deutero-canonical" since the Council of Trent in 1546. Following Martin Luther's estimate, Protestants have generally excluded them from their shorter, Hebrew-based canon of the Old Testament.
In the manner of earlier biblical works such as Judges, Samuel, and Kings, the First Book of Maccabees treats of Judea's struggle for liberation from foreign oppression, in this case from the Greco-Macedonian Seleucid kings. The long first chapter sets the scene, first with a quick retrospect on the rule of Alexander the Great and his successors, the Diadochoi (1:1-10), then an account of the paganising campaign of Jason and Antiochus Epiphanes. It describes the widespread apostasy from orthodox Jewish faith within the country itself and the Hellenising pressure which culminated in the desecration of the temple in 167 B.C. (1:11-64).
The main section (2:1-16:22) tells of the revolt perpetrated by Mattathias, a priest from the family of Joarib who dwelt in the countryside in Modein. We also hear of the deeds of his five sons: John, called Gaddi; Simon, called Thassi; Judas Maccabeus (the nickname meant "the hammer-like"); Eleazar; and Jonathan. The book deals with events in Palestine from 166 to 135 B.C. It ends with the murder of Simon, high priest and prince of the land, who was the last surviving son of Mattathias. The brief conclusion (16:23-24) refers to a Chronicle of John Hyrcanus, Simon's son and successor, which, however, is no longer extant.
Though the oldest surviving text of 1 Maccabees is a Greek version, it contains so many Hebraisms that it is clear that the book was originally composed in Hebrew, as both Origen and Jerome attest. Also, at the end of the 1st century A.D. Josephus seems to have used a Greek edition of the book, extending at least to the burial of Jonathan in Modein [1 Macc 13:30].
The first contains a history of the war of independence, commencing (175 BC.) in a series of patriotic struggles against the tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes, and terminating 135 BC.
The second gives a history of the Maccabees' struggle from 176 BC. to 161 BC. Its object is to encourage and admonish the Jews to be faithful to the religion of their fathers.
Both of the above became part of the Vulgate Latin Version of the Bible, and were so retained as Biblical by the Council of Trent. (They belong among the Apocrypha or Deutero-canonical literature.)
The remaining three do not hold a place in the Apocrypha, though they purport to tell the later history of the Jews, down to the first century BC.
Title, Date and Theme
Although it also writes of exploits in the days of the Maccabees, this book is in a very different style from 1 Macc., as is clear from its prologue (2:19-30) and epilogue (15:37-39). The author claims to have condensed the five-volume work of the otherwise unknown Jason of Cyrene, so that the story may delight those who read it (15:39).
He writes to tell of glorious victories, of Judas Maccabeus and his brothers, and the purification of the great temple, and the dedication of the altar, and the wars against Antiochus Epiphanes and his son Eupator, and the appearances that came from heaven to those who fought bravely for Judaism, so that though few in number they seized the whole land and pursued the barbarian hordes (2:19-21).
Like 1 Macc, this book too must be dated in the Hasmonean period between 134 and 63 B.C. If the author is deliberately anti-Hasmonean, he should be dated during the repressive reign of Alexander Janneus (103 - 76 B.C.)
The book is more concerned to stress the theological opposition between good and evil, than with a strictly historical account of events.
At the heart of the struggle lies the most holy temple in all the world (5:15), firmly protected by God (3:39). It should be governed by righteous high priests like Onias, rather than by renegade, hellenized Jews like Jason and Menelaus.
The nations's sufferings under the Syrian overlord, Antiochus Epiphanes, are punishment for apostasy (4:13-16), but the reader is urged (as in the Deuteronomic history much earlier), not to be depressed by such calamities, but to recognize that these punishments were designed not to destroy but to discipline our people. (6:12).
In accord with this explicitly didactic aim, the nation is saved not only by the faith and valour of Judas and his men (8:1-5; 15:7-11), but by dramatic angelic interventions (3:25-26; 5:2-4; 10:29-30), and by the stalwart courage of martyrs such as Eleazar (6:18-31), the mother and her seven sons (7:1-42), and the heroic resister, Razis (14:37-46). In this context of martyrdom, a very explicit belief in future resurrection is affirmed - five times, within chapter seven (7:9, 11, 14, 23, 29).
An extension of this belief in the after-life appears in 12:39-45, where Judas Maccabeus, on finding that some of his dead soldiers had been wearing idolatrous amulets, prayed that their sin might be forgiven, and then took up a collection from the other soliders, and sent two thousand drachmas of silver to Jerusalem to provide for a sin offering in the Temple there. The author comments upon the value of this gesture:
In doing this he acted very well and honourably, taking account of the resurrection. For if he were not expecting that those who had fallen would rise again, it would have been superfluous and foolish to pray for the dead. But if he was looking to the splendid reward that is laid up for those who fall asleep in godliness, it was a holy and pious thought. Therefore he made atonement for the dead, so that they might be delivered from their sin. (12:43-45)
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The Sacrilege of Helidorus (3:1-40)
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Jason's Hellenizing Reforms (4:7-17)
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Antiochus Desecrates the Temple (5:15-23a)
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Martyrdom of Eleazar (6:18-31)
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Martyrdom of the Mother and her Seven Sons (7:1-42)
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How Razis Died for his Country (14:37-46)
A. Letters to the Jews of Egypt (1:1-2:18)
B. The Editor's Preface (2:18-32)
C. Decline of the High Priesthood (3:1-4:50)
D. Antiochus Epiphanes and the Imposition of Hellenism (5:1-7:42)
E. Triumph of Judaism under Judas Maccabeus (8:1-10:9)
F. Subsequent Struggles of Judas (10:10-15:39)
A. Letters to the Jews of Egypt (1:1-2:18)
1. First Letter (1:1-10a)
2. Letter to Aristobulus (1:10b-2:17)
B. The Editor's Preface (2:18-32)
C. Decline of the High Priesthood (3:1-4:50)
1. The Sacrilege of Helidorus (3:1-40)
2. Simon's plot against Onias (4:1-6)
3. Jason's Hellenizing Reforms (4:7-17)
4. Jason Introduces Greek Cult, and Welcomes Antiochus (4:18-22)
5. Menelaus as High Priest (4:23-50)
D. Antiochus Epiphanes and the Imposition of Hellenism (5:1-7:42)
1. Antiochus Ravages Jerusalem (5:1-14)
2. Antiochus Desecrates the Temple (5:15-23a)
3. Apollonius Attacks Jerusalem (5:23b-26)
4. Judas Maccabeus in the desert (5:27)
5. Suppression of Judaism (6:1-11)
6. Providential Significance of the Persecution (6:12-17)
7. Martyrdom of Eleazar (6:18-31)
8. Martyrdom of the Mother and her Seven Sons (7:1-42)
E. Triumph of Judaism under Judas Maccabeus (8:1-10:9)
1. Judas Organizes Resistance to the Persecution (8:1-8)
2. Judas defeats Nicanor and Gorgias (8:8-29:34-36)
3. Judas's Other Victories (8:30-33)
4. Death of Antiochus, the Persecutor (9:1-29)
5. Judas Purifies the Temple (10:1-8)
F. Subsequent Struggles of Judas (10:10-15:39)
1. The Suicide of Ptolemy Macron (10:10-13)
2. Judas makes War in Idumea (10:14-23)
3. Judas defeats Timothy (10:24-28)
4. Victory over Lysias at Beth-Zur (11:1-15; 12:1)
5. Lycias makes peace with the Jews (11:16-38)
6. Battles with neighbouring Peoples (12:2-45)
7. Lysias's Second Campaign in Judah (13:1-26)
8. Alcimus Hostile to Judas (14:1-14)
10. Nicanor makes friends with Judas (14:15-36)
11. Razis Dies for his Country (14:37-46)
12. Arrogance and Defeat of Nicanor (15:1-37a)
13. Epilogue (15:37b-39)
Notes on Ben Sirach / Ecclesiasticus
Title and Author
Among the earliest of the Old Testament deutero-canonical books, and one of the longest books of the Bible, Sirach is one of the rare biblical works that was actually composed by the author to whom it is ascribed. It also contains the most extensive portion of Israelite wisdom literature to come down to us (A. Di Lella, Sirach, in N.J.B.C., 496). Its original Hebrew title was The wisdom of Jeshua ben Eleazar ben Sira, but in the Gk mansucripts the name becomes Sirach, and the title Ecclesiasticus was attached to it in the Latin tradition, probably because of its frequent use in the ecclesia or church assembly.
Though not a very clear literary unity, the book has a consistency of spirit and vocabulary that point towards its being the work of one author, whose life and efforts are described by his grandson, in the candid preface he added to his Greek translation of the work. For this reason, we can date the book and its translation with good assurance. Ben Sira lived in Jerusalem during the 3rd and early 2nd centuries B.C., and devoted his energies to the study and teaching of the Scriptures - the Law, the prophets and the writings. He ran a school for young men (51:23-30) and was a respected and clever teacher (34:11), whose travels (34:12-13) had put him in contact with other cultures and wisdom traditions. He wrote his book for all who seek instruction (33:18), intending to show them how every good insight can be harnessed to the flexible Jewish tradition (39:1-11). His work is not a systematic polemic against Hellenism, but a quietly persuasive demonstration of the validity of the Jewish way of life. Whatever theintellectual attractions of Athens or Alexandria, the true Jew will take his directions from the compass pointing to Jerusalem.
This voluminous book is very difficult to synthesise since, except for the section entitled Praise for the Ancestors (chs. 44-50), Sirach seems to have had no clear plan for arranging the many thoughts on which he discourses. He returns to the same subjects in various parts of the book, e.g. Children (7:23-25; 16:1-4; 22:3-4; 31:1-13; 41:5-10) and Parents (3:1-16; 7:21-28; 23:14; 41:17). Frankly, it appears to be an unsystematic compilation of class notes that Ben Sira accumulated over many years of teaching, with little order in the presentation of topics.
Alongside poems about the gift of Wisdom, which comes from the Lord (1:1-10; 11-30; 4:11-19; 6:18-37; 16:24-17:23 etc.), Ben Sira comments on such subjects as:
- Humility (3:17-24; 7:16-17; 10:26-28)
- Charity (3:30-4:6; 7:32-36; 12:1-7; 29:8-13)
- Virtues and Vices of Speech (5:6-6:1; 19:4-17; 20:1-8; 20:24-31; 22:27-23:4; 28:12-26)
- Pride and Folly (3:26-28; 10:6-18; 16:5-23; 20:3-31; 21:1-28)
- Friends and Associates (6:5-17; 11:29-34; 12:8-18; 22:19-26; 37:1-15)
- Diligence, Wealth and Miserliness (11:1-19; 11:23-28; 14:3-10; 31:1-11)
- Poverty and Respect (10:30-11:6; 13:18-24; 25:1-3)
- Women's Attractions, and Chauvinism
Justice and Retribution
Ben Sira teaches the traditional biblical doctrine about justice and retribution within the present; it is within this earthly life that one is rewarded for keeping the Law of God, or punished for its non-observance (11:22-28; 34:14-20), since after this life all go to Hades or Sheol, a dark, dismal place, separated from God (17:28-29). One survives through one's children-which is a compelling reason to bring them up well, under proper discipline (30:1-6) - and in one's good reputation (41:11-13). Prayer, and liturgical worship, are part of living life to the full, here and now. The book is punctuated with occasional prayers (36:1-22 being the longest); and an instruction about respecting the priests, and the offering of sacrifices, is set alongside that of honouring ones parents (7:29-31).
Like the prophets of old, Sirach insists that keeping the prescriptions of the Law with regard to generosity and kindness, is the best kind of worship (35:1-20); conversely, he holds that the sacrifice of one who oppresses the poor will not be acceptable to God (35:14-15). In several texts, he echoes the concern for social justice that is so central to the biblical tradition (3:30-31; 4:1-10; 12:1-5;31:8-11).
Sirach writes at length about woman, as daughter, wife, mother, gossip and adulteress - and much of what he writes smacks of the patriarchy of his culture and of his time. But it is only fair to observe that in the society for which he wrote, Ben Sira would not have been considered an extremist; rather, he was a typical Jewish male of the period, who lived in a patriarchal society where women had few rights as free and autonomous human beings... It must be remembered that he was writing only for young Jewish men in a male-centered society; it was not his intention to instruct women. It is in this context that his (often deplorable) statements about women are to be evaluated (A. di Lella, in Companion to the Bible, 699). However, we notice that in repeating the commandment about honouring father and mother, he does place the mother's rights to the respect of her children on a par with the man's (3:4-11)
Instances of ben Sirach's misogyny:
9:2-9 (the danger of being snared by a woman's charms)
19:2 (how wine and women lead intelligent men astray)
23:22-26 (the punishment of a woman who leaves her husband)
25:13-26 (a rant against the sins of women)
26:1-18 (praises of the ideal wife)
36:26-31 (taking care in the choice of a wife)
42:9-14 (anxieties of a father, about his daughters.)
Sirach shows a mundane attitude of self-interest like that of Ecclesiastes, as in his injunction (14:11-16):
11 My child, treat yourself well, according to your means,
and present worthy offerings to the Lord.
12 Remember that death does not tarry,
and the decree of Hades has not been shown to you.
13 Do good to friends before you die,
and reach out and give to them as much as you can.
14 Do not deprive yourself of a day's enjoyment;
do not let your share of desired good pass by you.
15 Will you not leave the fruit of your labours to another,
and what you acquired by toil to be divided by lot?
16 Give, and take, and indulge yourself,
because in Hades one cannot look for luxury.
Outline of the Book of Sirach
This contents are so disparate that it is difficult to suggest satisfactory headings under which to group this Book's many counsels. The titles of the main sections given here are merely tentative.
A. Basics (1:1-4:10)
a. Origins and Mystery of Wisdom (1:1-10)
b. Fear of the Lord brings Wisdom and Justice (1:11-30)
c. Under Trials, Trust in God (2:1-18)
d. Duties toward one's Parents (3:1-16)
e. Humility (3:17-24)
f. Docility, Almsgiving, Social Conduct (3:25-4:10)
B. Wisdom as Educator (4:11-16:17)
a. Rewards and Warning of Wisdom (4:11-19)
b. Cowardice (4:20-31)
c. Presumption, Duplicity, Unruly Passions (5:1-6:4)
d. True and False Friendship (6:5-17)
C. Gaining Wisdom (6:18-14:19)
a. Exhortation to Strive for Wisdom (6:18-37)
b. Conduct toward God and neighbour (7:1-17)
c. Family Life, Religion, and Charity (7:18-36)
d. Prudence in one's affairs (8:1-19)
e. Advice Concerning Women (9:1-9)
f. Choice of Friends (9:10-16)
g. Rulers and Pride (9:17-10:18)
h. Persons Deserving honour (10:19-11:6)
i. Providence and Trust in God (11:7-28)
j. Care in Choosing friends (11:29-12:18)
k. Rich and Poor (13:1-14:2)
l. The Use of wealth (14:3-19)
D. Manifestations of Wisdom (14:20-23:27)
a. Wisdom and her Blessing (14:20-15:10)
b. Free Will and Responsibility (15:11-16:23)
c. God's Wisdom Seen in Creation (16:24-18:14)
d. Generosity, Foresight, Self-Control (18:15-19:17)
e. Wisdom, Silence and Dignity (19:20-20:32)
f. Various Sins and Kinds of Folly (21:1-22:18)
g. Preserving Friendship (22:19-26)
h. Against Destructive Sins (22:27-23:27)
E. Practicalities of Wisdom (24:1-33:18)
a. Praise of Wisdom (24:1-33)
b. Gifts that bring Joy (25:1-12)
c. Wicked vs Virtuous Women (25:13-26:18(27))
d. The temptations of Commerce (26:29-27:21)
e. Hypocrisy and Pride, Vengeance, Evil Speech (27:22-28:26)
f. Lending, Alms, Surety (29:1-20)
g. Frugality and Training of Children (29:21-30:13)
h. Health, Cheerfulness, Riches (30:14-31)
i. Food, Wine, Banquets (31:1-32:13)
j. Providence of God (32:14-33:18)
F. Realism of Wisdom (33:19-39:11)
a. Property and Servants (33:19-33)
b. Trust in the Lord and not in Dreams (34:1-20)
c. True Worship and God's Response (34:21-36:22)
d. Choice of Associates (36:23-37:15)
e. Wisdom and Temperance (37:16-31)
f. Sickness and Health (38:1-23)
g. Vocations of Skilled Workers and Scribes (38:24-39:11)
G. Meditative Reflections (39:12-43:33)
a. Praise of God the Creator (39:12-35)
b. Miseries and joys of Life (40:1-41:13)
c. True and False Shame (41:14-42:8)
d. Care of Daughters (42:9-14)
e. The Works of God in Nature (42:15-43:33)
H. Praise of Israel's Great Ancestors (44:1-50:24)
a. Remembering Our Ancestors (44:1-15)
b. The Early Patriarchs (44:16-23)
c. Moses, Aaron, Phinehas (44:24-45:26)
d. Joshua, Caleb, the judges, Samuel (46:1-20)
e. Nathan, David, Solomon, Rehoboam (47:1-25)
f. Elijah and Elisha (48:1-16)
g. Hezekiah and Isaiah (48:17-25)
h. Josiah and Inspirational Prophets (49:1-16)
i. Simeon, Son of Jochanan (50:1-23)
I. Conclusion (50:24-51:30)
a. Exhortation and Epilogue (50:25-29)
b. Ben Sira's Psalm of Praise (51:1-12)
c. Autobiographical Poem on Wisdom (51:13-30)
The longest of the deuterocanonical/apocryphal books of the OT, Ben Sirach is the most comprehensive example of biblical wisdom literature. It is called Sirach in the Greek mss, or Ecclesiasticus in the Latin translations, which means "the ecclesiastical [or church] book," since it was used extensively in the liturgy. The book contains moral, cultic, and ethical maxims, folk proverbs, psalms of praise and lament, theological and philosophical reflections, homiletic exhortations, and pointed observations about life and customs of the day. For that reason it has been popular with both Jews and Christians; and it has left its impact on the proverbial literature of the West.
Author and Date. This work appears to be consciously modelled on the book of Proverbs; but while the latter is a compilation of materials by different authors spanning several centuries, Sirach is clearly the work of a single author, Ben Sirach, who wrote in Jerusalem during the early 2d century b.c.
The date of the book is calculated from information provided by the grandson in the preface to his translation. He says that he arrived in Egypt in the 38th year of the reign of King Euergetes, and that he spent many hours of hard work in preparing his Greek translation for publication. The epithet "Euergetes" ("Benefactor") was given to only two of the Egyptian kings, Ptolemy III Euergetes I (246-221 b.c.) and Ptolemy VII Physkon Euergetes II (170-164 and 146-117). Since the former reigned only 25 years, the latter must be the Euergetes in question, for he began his rule in 170 and he died fifty-three years later, in 117. Calculating from 170, Ptolemy VII's official accession year, the 38th year (when the grandson migrated to Egypt) would be 132 BC.
Notes on the Book of Wisdom
Blending Jewish and Greek
This, the latest of the Old Testament deutero-canonical books, was written about the year 50 B.C., by a devout Jew of the diaspora, probably in Alexandria. The fact of his writing in the persona of Solomon (1:1; 6:1-11; 7:5; 8:9-15) is simply a literary artifice, to lend an air of greater antiquity and authority to his reflections. In practice, he writes within the same thought-world as Philo, though somewhat earlier, and addresses himself to fellow-Jews who are so impressed by Hellenistic civilization and learning that their confidence in their Jewish heritage of faith is being undermined. The author combats the materialism, hedonism and idolatry into which some renegade Jews have already fallen. His purpose is to commend the core values of the Old Testament tradition, mediated through an overlay of Greek philosophical language.
a. Wisdom and human destiny: the good and the wicked (chs 1-5)
b. Origin and nature of wisdom; how to acquire it (chs 6-9)
c. God's wisdom, in the history of Israel (chs 10-19)
This author tackles the greatest puzzle of life: the problems of the sources of sin and evil, which are also the problems faced in Job and Ecclesiastes, and some of the greatest wisdom literature of the ancient Near East. In general, his response is that one can cope with evil only by fidelity to the traditions and faith of Israel, summed up in two words: wisdom and law.
Wisdom, which is God's gift, strengthens belief in Him, and prompts one to follow His Law. It was this wisdom that guided the patriarchs and great leaders of Israel's past, whose deeds are paraded by the author in a wealth of colourful language and midrashic invention.
The corollary conviction, to encourage the Alexandrian and other Jews to hold fast to their identity, even at great personal cost, is belief in personal immortality. The soul is conceived of as pneuma, spirit, in the manner of Greek philosophy; and the body is seen as a tent (9:15), just as in Platonism and Pythagoreanism.
Unlike earlier writings like Proverbs, or even Sirach, this book is not a collection of maxims, but follows consecutive discourse in the manner of Greek philosophical writings. The extent of Greek influence should not be exaggerated; the author's knowledge of philosophy was superficial and could be gained by conversaiton. But the conception of immortality of the righteous and the annihilation of the wicked, which is basic to his argument, has a form which can be recognized as Greek. In a non-Greek manner, the origin of evil is attributed to the devil (2:24). (McKenzie, Dictionary, 933)
His idea of wisdom may be traditional, but he has given it considerable refinement and subtlety. Wisdom is creative and has shaped all things (7:22); it communicates a multifarious kind of knowledge and ability (7:17-21). Indeed, it is personified as someone who was with God from the beginning, and who can be communicated by God as his best gift to noble souls (7:22 - 8:1). Those who have this gift of wisdom will know intuitively how to behave in life, according to the will of God. It is easy to see how adaptable was this line of thinking to a Christological purpose, especially for the fourth Evangelist.
Wisdom is presented as having been prominent in Israel's history, where God's creative spirit is shown at greater length than in the account of creation. Possibly responding to Greek speculation about the natural elements being powerful upon the lives of individuals and nations, this author wants to stress (as did Paul to the Colossians more than a century later), that these are subject to the all-wise, all-powerful Creator and the Mediator emanating from Him.
Outline of the Book of Wisdom
A. In Praise of Wisdom (1:1-11:1)
1. Immortality is the Reward of Wisdom (1:1-6:21)
- a) Exhortation to Justice (1:1-15)
- b) The Wicked Invite Death (1:16-2:24)
- c) Hidden Counsels of God (3:1-4:19)
- (1) The Destiny of the Righteous (3:1-9)
- (2) The Destiny of the Ungodly (3:10-12)
- (3) Childlessness (3:13-4:6)
- (4) Early Death (4:7-19)
- d) The Final Judgment (4:20-5:23)
- e) Exhortation to seek Wisdom (6:1-21)
2. The Value of Wisdom, as pursued by Solomon (6:22-11:1)
- a) Introduction (6:22-25)
- b) Solomon's Speech (7:1-8:21)
- (1) Solomon is Merely Human (7:1-6)
- (2) Solomon's Respect for Wisdom (7:7-14)
- (3) Solomon Prays for Divine Guidance (7:15-21)
- (4) The Nature of Wisdom (7:22-30)
- (5) Wisdom, Source of all that is Desirable (8:1-8)
- (6) Wisdom is Indispensable for Rulers (8:9-16)
- (7) Wisdom is God's Best Gift (8:17-21)
- c) Solomon's Prayer for Wisdom (9:1-18)
B. God's Support of Israel, in History (10:1-19:22)
1. From Adam to Moses, Wisdom Saved her Children (10:1-14)
2. Most clearly illustrated in the Exodus (10:15-19:22)
a) Lyrical Poem on the Exodus (10:15-11:4)
b) How Israel was blessed, and Egypt punished: (11:6-19:22)
(1) Water from the Rock, vs Plague of the Nile (11:6-14)
(2) Elements that favour Israel, threaten Egypt (16:15-29)
(3) Pillar of Fire vs Plague of Darkness (17:1-18:4)
(4) 10th plague and Exodus from Egypt (18:5-19:22)
c) Three Theological Reflections (interspersed)
(1) God's Infinite Power, Tempered by Mercy (11:15-12:22)
(2) The Foolishness of Worshipping false gods (13:1-15:17)
(3) Serpents in the desert (16:5-15)
This book (also called The Wisdom of Solomon) is an exhortatory discourse, punctuated by an enthusiastic invocation of personified Wisdom. Its main Religious Ideas are:
- Preexistence and Immortality of the Soul
- Eschatology
- Torah and Sophia
- Logos and Sophia
- Pursuing Wisdom
- The Nature and Efficacy of Wisdom
- Universalism and Particularism
Its Contents readily divide into three parts:
(I) Wisdom's Gift of Immortality (1:1-6:21);
(II) The Nature and power of Wisdom and Solomon's Quest for Her (6:22-10:21); and
(III) Divine Wisdom or Justice in the Exodus (chaps. 11-19), with two excursuses, one on Divine Mercy (11:15-12:22), the other on Idolatry (chaps. 13-15).
Part I begins with an address to the pagan rulers of the earth to pursue justice or wisdom, while admonishing those whose behaviour will inevitably result in their destruction (1:1-16). In diatribe style the wicked are then allowed to speak for themselves. Convinced that life is chance, and death final, they inevitably conclude that one ought to derive maximum enjoyment from the pleasures at hand without regard for moral scruple. Blinded by their own malice, they are ignorant of God's mysteries, and thus pass up the prize of immortality. Harking back to his earlier statement concerning those who have covenanted with Death, the author points out that though God had indeed created man as an immortal image of his own proper being, through the devil's envy, Death has nevertheless entered into the cosmic order, to be experienced by his devotees (chap. 2).
Next the author considers various paradoxes about the question of divine reward and retribution. The suffering and death of the just, he considers, are in reality only brief episodes of trial in the immortal destiny of righteous souls which will bring them peace, future glorification, rulership over nations, and a special divine illumination (3:1-12). The barren woman whose life has been pure shall be fruitful at the great assize of souls, and the righteous eunuch will receive a portion in the temple of the Lord. Bastard offspring, on the other hand, will be cut off, so that even childlessness is to be preferred, if accompanied by virtue (3:13-4:6). Moreover, early death is not necessarily an evil, since it may actually signify early removal to safety through divine providence, and true length of life is in any case not to be measured chronologically but by the attainment of wisdom (4:7-20). A portrait is also provided of the ultimate vindication of the just which apparently involves their elevation to heaveno be among the angelic host, and of the final remorse of the wicked when they come to the full realization of their former folly.
There follows a vivid description of the divine judgment, in which the cosmic elements join battle to crush the all-encompassing power of wickedness (5:1-23). The author concludes this part of his work with a second exhortation, this time to Wisdom, which from this point on becomes the explicit theme of the book, usurping the place of the various synonyms earlier employed in conjunction with her. The lords of the far corners of the earth (the reference is probably to Roman rule under Augustus or one of his early successors) should note the fact that their sovereignty is God-given, and that their criminal acts will be relentlessly scrutinized and punished. It therefore behooves them to seek Wisdom so that they may keep the divine ordinances (6:1-11). This task, we are assured, offers no insuperable obstacles, for Wisdom actually anticipates her lovers, and graciously seeks out those worthy of her. Employing the sorites, a standard chain syllogism frequently found in Hellenistic philosophical writings, the auth eloquently argues that the desire for Wisdom leads to sovereignty (6:12-21).
In Part II, the core of the book, the author is at his best. He describes his unwavering search for the great passion of his life, and with an unbridled exuberance he exalts the attributes of his beloved Wisdom. Without mentioning Solomon by name, he nevertheless now clearly identifies himself with that illustrious king. In the opening section, the author promises to reveal the nature and origin of Wisdom (6:22-25). He informs us that he loved Wisdom and desired her above all else, though he quickly discovered that all other good things are also eventually acquired along with her (7:7-14). However, God is the sole source of Wisdom, and her scope includes the entire range of knowledge (7:15-21). Wisdom's twenty-one attributes, borrowed largely from Greek philosophy, are enumerated, followed by an elabourate fivefold metaphor describing her essence and unique efficacy. She is pictured as entering generation by generation into holy souls, rendering them friends of God and prophets. She surpasses even the celestialights, and nothing can prevail over her (7:22-30). She is God's companion, and Solomon sought to make her his bride, knowing that through her he would have immortality (8:1-16).
There is a very moving prayer in which the king, acknowledging his feebleness and ephemeral nature, beseeches his Lord to send forth from the holy heavens his throne companion, Wisdom, who was present at the world's creation, to be his guide and guardian (9:1-12). Mortal reason is at best precarious, weighed down as it is by a perishable tent of clay. It is only God's holy spirit of Wisdom descending from on high which has taught men what is pleasing to Him, and has brought them salvation (9:13-18). Part II concludes with a detailed recitation of Wisdom's saving power in history from Adam through Moses and the Exodus (10:1-21).
Part III is constituted by an elabourate synkrisis, or comparison, where the author proceeds with a series of antitheses in order to illustrate the theme that Egypt was punished measure for measure, whereas Israel was benefited by those very things whereby Egypt was punished. This section contains two excursuses. The shorter one (11:15-12:22) concerns the nature of God's mercy as illustrated by his treatment of the Canaanites, whose loathsome practices included sorcery, licentious mystery rites, infanticide, and cannibalism. Though their seed was evil and their viciousness innate, they, too, were nevertheless judged gradually to afford them a chance to repentance (12:3-18). God's mercy thus serves as a model lesson for Israel, to teach them humanity, and at the same time to instill in them confidence in their own relationship with the Deity (12:19-22).
In his second and rather long excursus on the nature of idolatry (chaps. 13-15), those who worship nature are chided for not pressing their search beyond visible reality, which, for all its beauty and dynamic character, only points to its supreme Author. Though not entirely culpable, since they are at least searching for the Deity, neither are they to be excused, for if they were resourceful enough to infer the "Universe," they should certainly have discovered its Master (13:1-9). More blameworthy, however, are the wretches who worship images, addressing their prayers to lifeless objects that are entirely impotent (13:10-19). The author now seeks to explain the origin of idolatry, which he claims did not exist from the beginning but came into the world through the empty illusions of men. A father consumed with untimely grief made an image of the child so suddenly taken from him, honouring him as a god, and handed down to his descendants mysteries and initiation rites. Again, absent rulers were honoured by meansf images which the artists had overly beautified in order to please their sovereigns, which resulted in the masses mistaking them for objects of worship. This turned out to be the one great trap of human life, for idolatry is the source of every moral corruption (14:12-31).
There follow six further antitheses between the Egyptians and the Israelites (16:1-19:8). The first antithesis (11:1-14) had contrasted the change of the Nile water into blood with the abundant water provided to the Israelites from the desert rock. The second antithesis (16:1-4) now describes the hungering of the Egyptians as a result of the hideousness of the creatures sent to plague them, whereas Israel, after only briefly suffering want, came to enjoy the exotic delicacy of quail food. In the third antithesis (16:5-14), the Egyptians are slain by locusts and flies, but Israel survives a serpent attack through the bronze serpent, symbol of salvation. In the fourth antithesis (16:15-29), the Egyptians are plagued by thunderstorms, while Israel is fed by a rain of manna. The fifth antithesis (17:1-18:4) provides a rhetorically elabourate description of the psychological terror occasioned by the plague of darkness. Deftly and almost imperceptibly the author moves from the physical contrast between darkness and ght to the spiritual one which sees in the Egyptian moral villains obsessed with a bad conscience, and in Israel ethical heroes destined to illumine the world with the light of the Torah. In the sixth antithesis (18:5-25), the Egyptian firstborn are destroyed, but Israel is protected and glorified. In the seventh and final antithesis (19:1-9), the Egyptians are drowned in the sea, but Israel passes safely through. The book concludes with the conventional doxology: "For in every way, O Lord, you exalted and glorified your people, and did not neglect to assist them in every time and place" (19:22).
The strongest argument for the unity of Wisdom may be drawn from its language and style. In spite of some Hebrew colouring, such as parallelismus membrorum, Hebraisms, and the simple connection of clauses by conjunctions such as kai, de, dia touto, dio, gar, and hoti, Grimm has correctly pointed out that the author's Greek was on the whole rich and spontaneous, and that St. Jerome's judgment that his style was "redolent of Greek eloquence" was completely justified. .
These characteristics, in addition to the author's many favourite "theme" words and expressions which recur throughout the work, argue for unity of authorship, and make the hypothesis that Wisdom is a translation of a Hebrew original virtually untenable. Significant, too, is Wisdom's quotation in 2:12 of the LXX of Isa 3:10, which is radically different from the Hebrew, and of Isa 44:20 and Job 9:12, 19 (in 15:10 and 12:12), a fact which suggests that the Greek translators of Isaiah had utilized the Greek text of Wisdom. Although it is possible to maintain that the author may have used an earlier Hebrew document or documents deriving from Palestine in the composition of chaps. 1-10, we should nevertheless have to admit that they were not simply translated by him but rather served as the raw material for a new literary production.
Various scholars have placed it anywhere between 220 B.C.E. and 50 C.E. It is clear that the author used the LXX version of Isaiah which would date it no earlier than the late 3d century B.C.E. Some have suggested that its address to the rulers of the four corners of the earth (6:1) refers to the era of Roman rule, and that mention of the remoteness of the rulers' dwelling (14:17) alludes to the age of Augustus.
The linguistic evidence also points to a time not earlier than the Augustan era. Some 35 words or usages in the Book of Wisdom do not appear in secular Greek literature before the 1st century C.E. Some scholars point specifically to the reign of Gaius "Caligula" (37-41 C.E.) as the literary setting for Wisdom. The apocalyptic vision describing with ferocious passion the annihilation of the wicked (5:16-23) could mirrow the desperate situation where the lives of the Jewish community of Alexandria was threatened by a power against which it was hopeless to put up any resistance. The riots in Alexandria in 38 C.E. involved the demolition of many synagogues, and drew by the Roman prefect A. Avillius Flaccus to declare the Jews "aliens and foreigners" in Alexandria. This lost them their legal status of resident aliens, making them aliens without right of residence. Although Flaccus was soon executed, the Alexandrian Jews lacked security for a further two years and a half, until their rights were re-established by Claudius in 41 C.E.
Purpose: The author is primarily addressing his fellow Jews in an effort to encourage them to take pride in their traditional faith. He seeks to convince them that their way of life, rooted in the worship of the one true God, is of an incomparably higher order than that of their pagan neighbours, whose idolatrous polytheism had sunk them into the mire of immorality. Moreover, he attempts to justify their present suffering through the promise of immortality as a reward for their steadfast perseverance in the pursuit of righteousness. His accusing finger is especially pointed, however, at the pagan kings, i.e., the Roman rulers, who have abandoned the principles of divine justice and who will therefore suffer the consequences of their lawlessness. Following the philosophy of Greco-Roman kingship tracts, he insists that the king, above all, must pursue wisdom (6:21, 24). At the same time, the author naturally tones down the divine nature to which the pagan writers sought to assimilate the king. He emphasizes instd the king's lowly and mortal origins (7:1-5; 9:5).
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