Born of a devout Jewish family in the small but cosmopolitan Greek-speaking city of Tarsus in Cilicia (South-eastern Turkey), and raised within a mixture of educational forces (Jewish religion, Greek culture, Roman citizenship), Saul of Tarsus was equipped early for the part he would later play on the world stage, as the great apostle of early Christianity. Dedicated to his Jewish heritage, as a young man he went to Jerusalem to study his religion more deeply. He adopted the Pharisee way of life, as the most intense form of religious fidelity to the Law of God, and volunteered his services to help bring dissidents into line. Twenty years later, he will describe himself as the least of the apostles, unfit to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God (1 Cor. 15:9-10)

At the age of perhaps thirty, he was the scourge of the early Messianic or Christian sect, the followers of the Way, whom he believed to be gravely deviant in its stubborn refusal to abandon faith in Jesus, their recently crucified leader. In Saul's eyes, nothing could discredit any claimant to Messiah-ship more clearly than his rejection and public execution by crucifixion, since Cursed is everyone who hangs on a tree (Gal. 3:13). But something happened to make Saul change his mind, drastically, about who Jesus was and what he stood for.

In his letter to the Galatians, and also in Philippians (3:7-11) Paul confirms the impression which is also given by Luke, in Acts 9:1-18, that he was converted in one sudden moment of vision or revelation. Luke tells the story colourfully as something that happened to Saul on the road to Damascus, on his way to arrest and terrorise some of the Christians there. His own account is tantalizingly brief: he who had set me apart before I was born, and had called me through his grace, was pleased to reveal his Son to me, in order that I might preach him among the Gentiles (Gal. 1:15-16). The longer description in the Acts, given three times with minor variations each time, dramatizes what must have been essentially an inward experience. It was certainly a moment of transformation, changing Paul from bitter enmity of the Christian movement to its most effective and dedicated proponent.

Paul's own account of his conversion (Gal. 1:16ff) brings to mind the calling of an Old Testament prophet. Central to it is his vision of Jesus as the glorious Son of God, now exalted as Lord in heaven. This proved that the earthly Jesus had been rejected and crucified unjustly - and that therefore his death could now be understood as a sacrifice on behalf of others. As Raymond Brown put it, In the revelation, he discovered a love that went beyond his previous imagination. He felt taken over by Christ Jesus. (N.T. Intro. 449). From this, Paul felt it his vocation to be a missionary to people of every nation to prepare them for God's final coming, by having faith in the risen Christ.

The new feature of belief stressed by Paul was the high profile he gave to the death of Jesus as the greatest saving action in human history. While other Christians, including the apostles, might explain away the Passion of Christ as a mystery of God's providence, Paul saw it as an act of extraordinary love, as in fact the sacrificial death of one person, who loved me and gave himself for me (Gal. 2:20). This insight transformed him: whereas formerly all his will-power and energies had been directed to living and imposing a strict Pharisaic interpretation of the Law, now that embraced a person-centred religion, his aim was to proclaim Jesus as the Saviour whose death conquered sin and death for us all, opening for us the way to a new kind of living, and ultimately to eternal life with God.

Missionary Ministry, 36-58 A.D.

To prepare his students for the labourious slogging involved in understanding Paul's letters, Ray Brown used to begin with an appreciation of Paul's dogged courage as a missionary, preaching the Gospel. He was the man who did more than anyone else in his time to lead people to see what Jesus Christ meant for the world. In a great autobiographical passage that might be called, like Abelard's medieval text, The Story of my Misfortunes, he speaks of being often near death; five times I received thirty-nine lashes from Jews; three times I have been beaten with rods; once I was stoned; three times I have been shipwrecked; a night and a day I passed on the watery deep; on frequent journeys; in dangers from rivers; in dangers from bandits; many times without food, without sleep, etc. (2 Cor. 11:23-29).

It is not easy to piece together a full picture of Paul's missionary career. To get a somewhat coherent view of the journeys he made,- of his successes and partial failures, of his missionary companions and helpers, his hearers, his judges, his gaolers, and his speeches,- we need to combine material from his letters with the more orderly story told in Acts 13-28.

Paul's story comes vividly to life, in the hands of authors like Gunther Bornkamm (Paul) or Jerome Murphy O'Connor (Paul, A Critical Life). Through well-chosen headings the latter conveys some of the turbulence of those years, Learning with the Thessalonians, outside interference [from Jerusalem], Conflict in Galatia, Confusion in Corinth, and he writes: Paul was used to being misunderstood and to being abused for it, and this was the type of persecution about which he had warned his converts. But he must have been as astounded as they when the authorities moved against them for very different reasons. His converts on the other hand had assumed that in their new state they would be exempt from the violence that was endemic to their previous existence. Their reaction to the persecution was not fear or cowardice, but mental perturbation (1 Thes. 3:3). (A Critical Life, 119ff.)

Most of Paul's preaching was done in coastal cities, but the first European city to be evangelized by him was Philippi, about twelve miles inland. Although it was an important centre of Roman government, this move away from the coast is rather surprising and may indicate that at this early point in his career he had not yet realised that he would have to keep in touch with his foundations. He understood his mission as simple evangelization, to plant the gospel and March on; the watering of the seed was not his responsibility. It was only two years later, when he arrived in Corinth and was forced to concern himself with the affairs of the church at Thessalonica, that he became aware that facility of commujnicaitons had to be a critical factor in the choice of a missionary base. (Critical Life, 211).

His missionary strategy was to establish churches in the larger population centers, which he could easily reach by sea or along the paved Roman roads. From there, local converts could take the message into more remote towns and villages. Later in the first century, most of the areas visited by Paul had flourishing local congregations. The base for the latter half of Paul's ministry was Ephesus, on the Aegean coast, from which he kept in touch with a number of local churches that he had founded either personally or by one of his immediate co-workers. It is mainly from Ephesus and from Corinth that he wrote those fiery, inspiring epistles, for which he is principally remembered.

Imprisonment and Execution

Eventually, in the course of a journey to Jerusalem to heal the rifts that had developed between him and the church leadership there, he was mobbed in the Temple, arrested by Roman soldiers, held for two years in captivity awaiting trial, then sent to Rome, to be judged as Caesar's court. There he was executed by beheading, under Nero, probably in 64 A.D., though possibly as much as three years later.

The Letters he wrote

In general, Paul did not write for posterity; he wrote to provide guidance and encouragement to his converts. Only at a later stage may he have thought about the possible future usefulness of his letters, for communities other than those to whom they were originally addressed. His letters, all written within a ten-year period (51-61 A.D.) or between twenty and thirty years after the crucifixion of Jesus, were preserved, collected and eventually published in some fashion so as to become widely available. Their main function was to encourage, and to answer questions arising in the particular churches he himself had instructed. Pheme Perkins sees some parallel between the moral instructions written by Paul and those in the letters of the philosopher Crates to his wife Hipparchia, also a Cynic philosopher (Reading the New Testament, 144-146) and concludes that while his letters cannot be simply categorized as those of a wandering philosopher, they have enough moral philosophy in them, to be worthy of a wider public. Christians have preserved them becaus his words are not just limited to the peculiar problems of individual, first century churches. They speak about the roots of Christian life and faith (147).

Of course, we also detect some development of ideas from the earlier to the later letters. John Drane remarks how, in view of the intensity of Paul's ministry, it is unlikely that his thinking would have remained absolutely static throughout.. and so in principle we can expect to variation in his letters. (Intro. N.T. 370) The question is, just how much change might be possible between individual letters, in style and in content, for them to be really composed by the same person? On this basis, some measure of doubt is raised by critical scholarship, about the authorship of Ephesians and Colossians; and many reject the letters to Timothy and Titus as reflecting a post-Pauline vision of the church.

At any rate, far from being thrown away after their first reading, the Apostle's letters were treasured by the recipients and were somehow gathered into a collection, some time before the end of the 1st century - although we do not know exactly how or when. Various theories are offerred, to account for their assembly into a corpus. The traditional view was that some of the recipients had copies made of their letter from Paul, to send to other churches, and that this eventually led to several more-or-less complete collections. One plausible theory would see Ephesus as the place where this collection took place, and the Epistle to the Ephesians as composed by an admirer of the recently martyred Paul, as an accompaniment to be sent around along with copies of his genuine letters.

More recently, it has been suggested that after the success of his letter to the Galatians, Paul himself retained one or more copies of each letter before sending it, so that its usefulness could be replicated as required, for another community. It is certainly true that when he wrote to the Romans in 58 A.D., the contents of his letter had universal relevance. The same might be said of Colossians and Ephesians - if indeed, he wrote them. By the end of the first century, the Letters probably were circulated for general church use. A disciple of Paul, possibly Onesimus, may have used Ephesians as a covering letter for the whole collection.

Another factor leading to the high esteem in which Paul's letters were held after his death was surely the inspiring picture of him in the Acts of the Apostles, written by Luke in the eighties of the first century and circulated in the various Gentile-Christian churches. This fact appears to be under-valued by some modern admirers of Paul, who too readily denigrate what they see as Luke's faded Paulinism and contrast his theology too sharply with that of the Apostle.

Notes on the Epistle to the Romans

Authorship and Date
Calmer than Galatians
Looking East and West
The Message of Grace
Major Section
Detailed Outline
Dictionary

Authorship and Date

Written from Achaia (southern Greece,) probably Corinth, in the winter of 57-58, this letter is Paul's fullest and most methodical presentation of his teaching about the way that God saves us through Christ - a salvation to be received by an attitude of faith, like that of Abraham, rather than earned through diligent observance of Laws, as in the system of covenant proclaimed by Moses.

This epistle was probably conveyed to Rome by Phoebe of Cenchrea (Rm. 16:1). Gaius entertained the apostle during his writing it (16:23; 1 Cor. 1:14), and another Christian, Erastus, was chamberlain of the city of Corinth at that time (2 Tim. 4:20).

Calmer than Galatians

The basic argument is the same as in the earlier epistle to the Galatians, but it is made with more care, and in the awareness that the readers in Rome owed Paul no particular loyalty. Rather indeed, their main links were with the mother-church in Jerusalem. Accordingly, Paul shows more deference to the Jerusalem community and their traditions than hitherto. Indeed, he postpones his long-desired visit to Rome, until he has carried to Jerusalem the fruit of a collection made throughout his Gentile churches, surely a vivid sign of the reconciliation he desires with the original church leaders.

Looking East and West

In Romans, he looks both East and West. Paul had not founded the church in Rome, but he seeks their help in a mission that he plans to make to Spain. He also wants to help resolve the danger that Jewish and non-Jewish Christians might treat each other with suspicion. Therefore he expounds at length his view of how Christianity is linked with Judaism, refining the ideas he has developed in dealing with the crisis in Galatia. The writing was done in Corinth, during the Winter of 57-58 A.D.

The Message of Grace

The main thrust of the Epistle is well expressed by Murphy O'Connor as the idea that God not only desires the salvation of all, but has put a plan into effect whereby grace can reach each and every individual (3:29)... This insight has been the guiding principle of Paul's life since the moment of his conversion, and in this sense Romans crystallizes his gospel. (Critical Life, 334)

Major Sections of Romans

A. Introduction (1:1-15)

B. Doctrinal Section: God's Gospel of Jesus (1:16-11:36)

1. Through the Gospel God Justifies Believers (1:16-4:25)

2. The Love of God Assures those Justified by Faith (5:1-8:39)

3. No Denial of God's Promise to Israel (9:1-11:36)

C. Hortatory Section: Upright Life in Christ (12:1-15:13)

D. Conclusion (15:14-33)

E. Letter of Recommendation for Phoebe (16:1-23)

Detailed Outline

A. Introduction (1:1-15)

1. Address and Greetings (1:1-7)

2. Thanksgiving (1:8)

3. Explanation: Paul's desire to come to Rome (1:9-15)

B. Doctrinal Section: God's Gospel of Jesus (1:16-11:36)

1. Through the Gospel God Justifies Believers (1:16-4:25)

a) Positively: Gospel offers Salvation For All (1:16-17)

b) Negatively: All deserve God's wrath (1:18-3:20)

(i) God's wrath against the Gentiles (1:18-32)

(ii) God's judgement on the Jews (2:1-3:20)

c) God's Gift through Christ is Accepted by Faith (3:21-31)

d) Theme Illustrated: Abraham was Justified by Faith (4:1-25)

2. The Love of God Assures those Justified by Faith (5:1-8:39)

a) Announced: the Justified Christian is Reconciled with God (5:1-11)

b) Theme Explained: Threefold Liberation (5:12-7:25)

(i) Freedom from Adam's Sin (5:12-21)

(ii) Freedom from Self, through Union with Christ (6:1-23)

(iii) Freedom from the Law (7:1-25)

c) Theme Developed: Life in the Spirit, Destined for Glory (8:1-39)

(i) Christian life, empowered by the Spirit (8:1-13)

(ii) Children of God, Destined for Glory (8:14-30)

(iii) The Love of God Manifest in Christ (8:31-39)

3. No Denial of God's Promise to Israel (9:1-11:36)

a) Paul's lament for his Jewish people (9:1-5)

b) Their Plight accords with God's Direction of History (9:6-29)

c) Israel's failure came from its own refusal (9:30-10:21)

d) Israel's failure is partial and temporary (11:1-36)

C. Hortatory Section: Upright Life in Christ (12:1-15:13)

1. Christian life: Worship in the Spirit, toward God (12:1-13:14)

2. Charity is owed by the strong to the weak (14:1-15:6)

3. Appeal for Unity (15:7-13)

D. Conclusion (15:14-33)

1. Paul's Achievements in the East (15:14-21)

2. Paul's Plans: Jerusalem, then Westward (15:22-33)

E. Letter of Recommendation for Phoebe (16:1-23)

F. Doxology (16:25-27)

The purpose of Romans

This epistle was probably written at Corinth and conveyed to Rome by Phoebe of Cenchrea (Rm. 16:1). Gaius entertained the apostle during his writing it (16:23; 1 Cor. 1:14), and another Christian, Erastus, was chamberlain of the city of Corinth at that time (2 Tim. 4:20).

Written in the winter of 57-58, this is a detailed, methodical presentation of Paul's teaching about the way that God has chosen to save us, through Christ - a salvation to be received by an attitude of faith, like that of Abraham, rather than earned through diligent observance of Laws, as in the system of covenant proclaimed by Moses.

The basic argument is the same as in the earlier epistle to the Galatians, but it is made with more care, and in the awareness that the readers in Rome owed Paul no particular loyalty. Rather indeed, their main links were with the "mother-church" in Jerusalem. Accordingly, Paul shows more deference to the Jerusalem community and their traditions than hitherto. Indeed, he postpones his long-desired visit to Rome, until he has carried to Jerusalem the fruit of a collection made throughout his Gentile churches, surely a vivid sign of the reconciliation he desires with the original church leaders.

The fundamental thrust of the Epistle is well expressed by Murphy O'Connor as, "that God not only desires the salvation of all, but has put a plan into effect whereby grace can reach each and every individual (3:29)... This insight has been the guiding principle of Paul's life since the moment of his conversion, and in this sense Romans crystallizes his gospel." (Critical Life, 334)

After the introduction (1:1-15), the apostle presents in it various aspects and relations the doctrine of justification by faith (1:16-11:36) on the ground of the imputed righteousness of Christ. He shows that salvation is all of grace, and only of grace. This main section of his letter is followed by various practical exhortations (12:1-15:13), which are followed by a conclusion containing personal explanations and salutations, which contain the names of twenty-four Christians at Rome, a benediction, and a doxology (Rm. 15:14-ch. 16).

Notes on 1 Corinthians

Origin and Purpose
Major Section
Realistic Picture of an Early Church
Notable Passages
Detailed Outline
Topics in 1 Corinthians

Origin and Purpose

This Epistle was written from Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:8) about the time of the Passover in the third year of the apostle's sojourn there (Acts 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed the purpose to visit Macedonia, and then return to Corinth (probably A.D. 57).

The news which had reached him from Corinth frustrated his plan. He had heard of the contentions and abuses that had arisen among them, first from Apollos (Acts 19:1), and then from a letter they wrote to him on the subject, and also from some of the household of Chloe, and from Stephanas and his two friends who had visited him (1 Cor. 1:11; 16:17). Therefore Paul wrote for the purpose of correcting the erroneous opinions and the many abuses and disorderly practices that prevailed among them. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter (2 Cor. 2:13; 8:6, 16-18).

Major Section

The epistle is structured in five main parts:

A. Paul's solution to the divisions and party strifes that had arisen among the Corinthian Christians (1 Cor. 1-4).

B. Certain cases of immorality that had become notorious among them. (5-6).

C. Answers questions of doctrine and ethics that they had written to him. He speaks on marriage, on food and ceremonial, and on abuses in the celebration of the Lord's supper (7-14).

D. One chapter (15) contain his elabourate defense of the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead

E. Instructions (16) about the collection he is promoting, for the poorer Christians in Judea; his travel plans; some final requests and greetings.

Realistic Picture of an Early Church

This epistle gives a vivid and realistic picture of the early church, and does much to dissipate the dream that the church in the apostolic age was in an unblemished perfection of holiness or harmony. The apostle unfolds and applies the great principles of faith in a way that can guide the church of all ages in dealing with similar problems as and whenever they may appear.

Notable Passages

Celebrity Culture causes Schisms (1:11ff)

The Word of the Cross (1:18ff)

God's fellow-workers (3:5ff; 4:1ff)

Sacredness of our bodies (6:12ff)

Marriage and Celibacy (7:1ff)

All things to all people (9:19ff)

All for the Glory of God (10:31ff)

Imitation of Christ (11:1)

Varieties of Gifts (12:4ff)

Qualities of Love (13:4ff)

Truth of Resurrection (15:1ff)

Mystery of Resurrection (15:20ff)

Detailed Outline of 1 Cor.

Introduction: Greeting Thanksgiving (1:1-10)

A. Part 1: Divisions in the Community (1:11-4:21)

1. Rival Groups in the Community (1:11-17)

2. God has Different Standards (1:18-31)

3. The power of Paul's Preaching (2:1-5)

4. True Wisdom Language of Love (2:6-3:4)

5. The Right Attitude Towards Pastors (3:5-4:5)

6. Application to the Corinthians (4:6-13)

7. The Visit of Timothy (4:14-21)

B. The Unity of the Body (5:1-6:20)

1. A Case of Incest (5:1-8)

2. Clearing up a Misunderstanding (5:9-13)

3. Lawsuits among Christians (6:1-11)

4. Casual copulation (6:12-20)

C. Responses to Corinthian Questions (7:1-14:40)

1. Problems of Social Status (7:1-40)

a) Conjugal Intimacy within Marriage (7:1-9)

b) Marriage and Divorce (7:10-16)

c) Changes in Social Status (7:17-24)

d) Changes in Conjugal Status (7:25-40)

2. Problems Arising from Pagan Environment (8:1-11:1)

a) Food Offered to idols (8:1-13)

b) Paul Renounces his Rights (9:1-27)

c) The dangers of Over Confidence (10:1-13)

d) The Significance of Social gestures (10:14-22)

e) The Scruples of the weak (10:23-11:1)

3. Problems in Liturgical Assemblies (11:2-14:40)

a) Dress at Liturgical Assemblies (11:2-16)

b) The Eucharist (11:17-34)

c) The Gifts of the Spirit (12:1-11)

d) The Body Needs many Members (12:12-31)

e) Love, the Greatest Gift (13:1-13)

f) Prophecy, more important than Tongues (14:1-25)

g) Order in the use of Spiritual Gifts (14:26-40)

D. The Resurrection (15:1-58)

1. The Creed of the Church (15:1-11)

2. Consequences of Conflicting Theses (15:12-58)

a) The Corinthians' Thesis (15:12-19)

b) Paul's Thesis (15:20-28)

3. Arguments for Resurrection (15:29-34)

4. The resurrected Body (15:33-49)

5. The need for Transformation (15:50-58)

E. Conclusions (16:1-24)

1. The Collection for Jerusalem (16:1-4)

2. Paul's Travel plans (16:5-9)

3. Some Requests (16:10-18)

4. Final Greetings (16:19-24)

The writing of 1 Corinthians

It was written from Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:8) about Passover-time in the third year of the apostle's stay there (Acts 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed the aim of visiting Macedonia, and then returning to Corinth (probably 57 A.D.). The news which had reached him from Corinth frustrated his plan.

He had heard of contentions and abuses that had arisen among them, first from Apollos (Acts 19:1), and then from a letter they sent to him on the subject, and also from some of the "household of Chloe," and from Stephanas and his two friends who had visited him (1 Cor. 1:11; 16:17). Paul wrote to correct the erroneous opinions and disorderly practices that prevailed among them. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter (2 Cor. 2:13; 8:6, 16-18).

The epistle has four main topics:

(1.) Resolving the divisions and party strifes that had arisen among them (1 Cor. 1-4).

(2.) Reproving cases of public immorality among them. (5-6).

(3.) Questions of doctrine and ethics in reply to their questions (7-14).

(4.) His defense of and reflections on the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, (15).

This epistle gives a vivid picture of the early church. It entirely dissipates the dream that the apostolic church was in an exceptional condition of holiness of life or purity of doctrine. Responding to particular needs among the Christians in Corinth, the apostle applies principles of faith, fitted to guide the church of all ages in dealing with the same and similar evils in whatever form they may appear.

Notes on 2 Corinthians

Origin and Purpose

Paul's Missionary Hardships

Was there a Reconciliation?

Major Sections

Detailed Outline

Highlights in 2 Corinthians

Origin and Purpose

This letter was probably written at Philippi, or possibly Thessalonica, early in the year A.D. 58, and was sent to Corinth by Titus. It addresses not only the church in Corinth, but also the saints in all Achaia, i.e., in Athens, Cenchrea, and other cities in Greece. Many see it as a composite of at least two originally independent sections, chapters 1-9 and (the more severe) chapters 10-13.

Paul's Missionary Hardships

Especially remarkable are the passages about his missionary hardships (11: 23-29) and about his moments of privileged revelation (12:1-9), both of which buttressed his claim to apostolic status. This epistle shows the individuality of the apostle more than any other. Human weakness, spiritual strength, tenderness of affection, wounded feeling, sternness, irony, rebuke, impassioned self-vindication, humility, a proper self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the weak and suffering, as well as for the progress of the church and for the spiritual advancement of its members, are all displayed in turn in the course of his appeal.

Was there a Reconciliation?

Of the effects of this impassioned epistle on the Corinthian church, we have no definite information. We know that Paul visited Corinth after he had written it (Acts 20:2, 3), and that on that occasion he stayed there for three months. In his letter to the church in Rome, written during that Winter visit, he includes greetings from two of the leading members of the Corinthian church (Rm 16:23), which indicates that some reconciliation has taken place between the Apostle and the turbulent church at Corinth.

Major Sections

A. Introduction; Greeting and Blessing (1:1-11)

B. Cancelled Visit to Corinth (1:12-2:13)

C. Authentic Apostleship (2:14-6:10)

D. Paul's Relations with Corinth (6:11-7:16)

E. The Collection for Jerusalem (8:1-9:15)

F. Appeal for their Complete Obedience (10:1-18)

G. Paul "speaks like a Fool" (11:1-12:13)

H. Warning Before His Visit (12:14-13:10)

I. Conclusion, Final Words; Greeting (13:11-13)

Detailed Outline

A. Introduction; Greeting and Blessing (1:1-11)

B. A Cancelled Visit to Corinth (1:12-2:13)

1. Paul's Plan (1:12-22)

2. Consequences of his Change of Plan (1:23-2:13)

C. Authentic Apostleship (2:14-6:10)

1. The Apostolate, Theory Practice (2:14-3:6)

2. Ministry, Old New (3:7-4:7)

3. Ministry and Mortality (4:7-5:10)

a) The Manifestation of Jesus (4:7-15)

b) Facing the Fear of Death (4:16-5:10)

4. Reconciliation in a New Creation (5:11-6:10)

a) The New Creation (5:11-15)

b) The Ministry of Reconciliation (5:16-6:10)

D. Paul's Relations with Corinth (6:11-7:16)

1. An Appeal for Openness (6:11-7:4)

2. The Results of the Mission of Titus (7:5-16)

E. The Collection for Jerusalem (8:1-9:15)

1. A Challenging Request (8:1-15)

2. The Recommendation of Representatives 8:16-9:15)

3. The Rewards of Generosity (9:6-15)

F. Appeal for their Complete Obedience (10:1-18)

1. The Consequences of Disobedience (10:1-6)

2. Paul's Authority as Founder of the Community (10:7-18)

G. Paul speaks like a Fool (11:1-12:13)

1. His Justification for Being Foolish (11:1-21a)

2. Paul's Boasts of Himself (11:21b-12:10)

a) His Sufferings (11:21b-33)

b) Visions and Revelations (12:1-10)

3. Further Justification for His Foolishness (12:11-13)

H. A Warning Before His Visit (12:14-13:10)

1. Again, the Matter of Financial Support (12:14-18)

2. The Corinthians Must Correct Themselves (12:19-13:10)

I. Conclusion, Final Words; Greeting (13:11-13)

Highlights in 2 Corinthians

Shortly after writing his first letter to the Corinthians, Paul left Ephesus, where intense excitement had been aroused against him, the evidence of his great success, and proceeded to Macedonia. Pursuing the usual route, he reached Troas, the port of departure for Europe.

Here he expected to meet with Titus, whom he had sent from Ephesus to Corinth, with news of the effects produced on the church there by the first epistle; but was disappointed (1 Cor. 16:9; 2 Cor. 1:8; 2:12, 13). He then left Troas and proceeded to Macedonia; and at Philippi, where he stayed, he was soon joined by Titus (2 Cor. 7:6, 7), who brought him good news from Corinth, and also by Timothy. Under the influence of the feelings awakened in his mind by the favourable report which Titus brought back from Corinth, this second epistle was written.

It was probably written at Philippi, or, as some think, Thessalonica, early in the year 58 A.D., and was sent to Corinth by Titus. This letter he addresses not only to the church in Corinth, but also to the saints in all Achaia, i.e., in Athens, Cenchrea, and other cities in Greece. Many see it as a composite of at least two originally independent sections, chapters 1-9 and (the more severe) chapters 10-13.

(1.) Paul's spiritual labours and course of life, expressing his warm affection toward the Corinthians (2 Cor. 1-7).

(2.) Specific directions regarding the collection that was to be made for their poor brethren in Judea (8; 9).

(3.) Strenuous defence of his own apostolic claim (10-13), and against the charges and insinuations of the false teacher and his adherents.

This epistle shows the individuality of the apostle more than any other. Human weakness, spiritual strength, tenderness of affection, wounded feeling, sternness, irony, rebuke, impassioned self-vindication, humility, a proper self-respect, zeal for the welfare of the weak and suffering, as well as for the progress of the church and for the spiritual advancement of its members, are all displayed in turn in the course of his appeal. We cannot know what effects this letter produced on the Corinthian church, but clearly Paul visited Corinth after he had written it (Acts 20:2, 3), and that on that occasion he stayed there for three months. In his letter to Rome, written during this visit, he sent salutations from some of the principal members of the Corinthian church, which indicates that some reconciliation has taken place.

Notes on Galatians

Origin and Purpose
Paul's True Apostleship
Justification by Faith
Freedom of the Gospel
Detailed Outline
Galatian Highlights

Origin and Purpose

Paul's Epistle to the Galatians is addressed to a group of local Christian communities whose exact location is impossible to determine, since it's uncertain whether by Galatia Paul means the heartland of the Galatian tribe, around modern Ankara in north-central Turkey, or its southern extension, which had become the Roman province of Galatia, and would include Iconium, Derbe and other places visited in Paul's first mission journey (Acts 13-14). What is clear is the crisis that brought Paul to write the letter. His Christian converts in Galatia were coming under pressure from a Judaizing Christian faction who insisted that, along with baptism, non-Jewish men entering the church must receive circumcision and all the other prescriptions of the Mosaic Law.

Paul's True Apostleship

These Judaizing intruders repudiated Paul's opposing view by flatly denying his right to be respected as an apostle. In the letter, Paul vigorously defends his standing as a true apostle of Jesus Christ, in the process giving us some important autobiographical data. He is adamant that the Mosaic Law is obsolete and that submission by the church to the full range of Jewish practices would diminish the importance of Jesus, whose death established a quite new, more personal relationship between God and mankind. However, the new freedom of Christians is not a license to sin- rather, it is a new power to live in accord with the Spirit of God.

Justification by Faith

This letter passionately addresses the belief in justification through faith, not works of the Law, and defends our new freedom in Christ. It is abrupt, with neither kindly introduction nor gracious thanksgiving, nor personal greetings at the end. Its blunt and polemical tone contrasts with the care Paul gave to expressing the same basic theology, in the epistle to the Romans, some four or five years later, writing from Corinth in 58 AD.

Defending his right to interpret the Gospel as he does, Paul declares himself as chosen to be Christ's messenger to the Gentiles, endowed with a revelation that the Gentiles must live the Christian faith without submitting to the Law of the Jews. The core of this religious conviction was reinforced by his visit to the pillars (James, Peter and John) in Jerusalem, who shook his hand to confirm his God-given mission (2:6-9).

Freedom of the Gospel

In chapters 3-4 he presents his freedom of the Gospel theme in a series of allegorical interpretations based on the Law of Moses. Paul sees God's covenant promise to Abraham as deeper and more universal than the Torah of Moses: any person, Jew or Gentile, male or female, who like Abraham believes God will be reckoned as righteous, and in this way, through Abraham, all nations will be blessed. But faith-like-Abraham's now means believing that Christ has redeemed us from the curse of the Law by becoming a curse for us. In a complex way, it is actually from the narrative Torah (specifically, the Abraham stories in Genesis) that Paul constructs his argument against the legal Torah being permanently binding upon all.

This new freedom, however, is not of a licentious kind, but is intended that we may serve God with the freedom of a child toward its parents. In the final third of the letter (chapters 5-6) Paul presents his moral ideals for life under the Spirit of Christ. He lists contrasting catalogues of virtues and vices, fruits of the Spirit or the flesh, and calls for helpfulness and mutual forgiveness within the church. Closing the letter in his own distinctive scrawl, he repeats its major conviction - that our basis for both hope and faith is not the Mosaic Law, but the saving cross of Christ.

Notable Passages

Detailed Outline

A. Introduction (1:1-11)

1. Praescriptio: Opening Formula (1:1-5)

2. Exordium: Amazement (1:6-7), Anathema (1:8-9)

B. Narratio: Paul's Historic Call to Preach the Gospel (1:11-2:14)

1. Paul's Gospel Not of Human Origin (1:11-24)

2. Paul's Gospel Approved by Jerusalem Church Leaders (2:1-10)

3. Paul's Gospel Challenged Peter's Inconsistency at Antioch (2:11-14)

C. Propositio: Paul's Gospel Set Forth (2:15-21)

D. We Are Saved by Faith Not by the Law. Six Proofs: (3:1-4:31)

1. Experience of the Galatians in First Receiving the Spirit (3:1-5)

2. Experience of Abraham God's Promises to Him (3:6-26)

3. Experience of Christians in Baptism (3:27-29)

4. Experience of Christians as Children of God (4:1-11)

5. Experience of Galatians in Their Relation to Paul (4:12-20)

6. Allegory of Sarah and Hagar (4:21-31)

E. Exhortatio: Horatory Section (5:1-6:10)

1. Counsel: Preserve the Freedom That You Have in Christ (5:1-12)

2. Warning: Walk not by the Flesh, but by the Spirit (5:13-26)

3. Advice: the Right Way to Use Christian Freedom (6:1-10)

F. Postscriptio: Paul's Signature résumé; Farewell Blessing (6:11-18)

Galatian Highlights

The genuineness of this epistle is never called in question. Its authorship by Paul is universally acknowledged; indeed, it is his most characteristic work, pouring out his convictions with passion and zeal.

Occasion of the Epistle: The churches of Galatia were founded by Paul himself (Acts 16:6; Ga. 1:8; 4:13, 19). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from heathenism (4:8), but partly also of Jewish converts, who probably, under the influence of Judaizing teachers, sought to incorporate the rites of Judaism with Christianity, and by their active zeal had succeeded in inducing the majority of the churches to adopt their views (1:6; 3:1). This epistle was written for the purpose of counteracting this Judaizing tendency, and of recalling the Galatians to the simplicity of the gospel, and at the same time also of vindicating Paul's claim to be a divinely-commissioned apostle.

Time and place of writing: It was probably written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts 18:23). The references of the epistle appear to agree with this conclusion. The visit to Jerusalem, mentioned in Ga. 2:1-10, was identical with that of Acts 15, and it is spoken of as a thing of the past, and consequently the epistle was written subsequently to the council of Jerusalem. The similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at the same time, namely, in the winter of A.D. 57-8, during Paul's stay in Corinth (Acts 20:2, 3). This to the Galatians is written on the urgency of the occasion, news having reached him of the state of matters; and that to the Romans in a more deliberate and systematic way, in exposition of the same great doctrines of the gospel.

Contents: The great question discussed is, Was the Jewish law binding on Christians? The epistle is designed to prove against the Jews that men are justified by faith without the works of the law of Moses. After an introductory address (Ga. 1:1-10) the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle. (1) He defends his apostolic authority (1:11-19; 2:1-14); (2) shows the evil influence of the Judaizers in destroying the very essence of the gospel (3 and 4); (3) exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the fruits of the Spirit, and in a right use of their Christian freedom (5-6:1-10); (4) and then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed, and with the benediction.

The Epistle to the Galatians and that to the Romans taken together prove that justification is not to be obtained meritoriously either by works of morality or by rites and ceremonies; but that it is a free gift, proceeding entirely from the mercy of God, to those who receive it by faith in Jesus Jesus.

In the conclusion (6:11) Paul says, "See with what large letters I have written with my own hand." It is implied that this was different from his ordinary usage, which was simply to write the concluding salutation with his own hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle was written by another hand.

"At this point the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thess. 2:2; 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries." (John Lightfoot). In the present case the apostle writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in animated, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Grk. pelikois grammasin - with what large letters), that reflect the energy and determination of his soul - or may suggest that he was shortsighted.

Notes on Ephesians

Origin and Purpose
Is it post-Pauline?
Notable Passages
Detailed Outline
On Ephesians

Origin and Purpose

The authenticity of Ephesians as a genuinely Pauline epistle has been doubted since the time of Erasmus, the 16th century Dutch humanist and biblical scholar. It is possible, but not compelling, to consider it as deutero-Pauline, that is, written within the tradition of Paul but not personally by him.

The problem of Ephesians is closely related to that of Colossians, since both to into soaring into cosmic imagery to describe the universal significance of Christ. Can Paul have written in this way? Some cannot imagine that in his lifetime Paul thought of Christ in such ways, and therefore see these letters as written by some later Paulinist, claiming Paul's inheritance and writing in the form of captivity epistles, ostensibly by Paul from prison. The author, whoever he/she was, believed that all are saved and reconciled through Christ, who has in principle united Jew and Gentile and has broken down the dividing wall of hostility, bringing peace and unity (2:14-17).

Is it post-Pauline?

Raymond Brown, while tending toward the pseudonymity view, added the necessary caution that while Paul's letters in the 50s show him wrestling with the issues of the return of Christ and with the Jewish-Christian insistence upon circumcision, we do not know what happened to Paul by way of theological change in the 60s, just before he died (Intro. N.T. 633). The reason many view Ephesians as being post-Pauline, is that its outlook is so different from that of his undisputed letters. It may well have been written a generation after Paul's death, by disciples who had come to see, in the unified church of Jews and Gentiles existing in places in Asia minor in the 90s, the fulfilment of the work begun by Paul.

Notable Passages

The Hope to which we are Called (1:17ff)

Once Dead, Now Alive with Christ (2:1ff)

Breaking down the Dividing Wall (2:14ff)

Paul's Prayer for the Church (3:14ff)

A Life Worthy of our Calling (4:1ff)

Imitators of God (5:1)

Domestic Relationships (5:21ff)

Detailed Outline

A. Introduction: Address Greeting (1:1-2)

B. Part One: God's Plan Revealed Accomplished (1:3-3:21)

1. Blessing (1:3-14)

2. Thanksgiving and Prayer of Intercession (1:15-23)

3. Once Dead, Now Alive with Christ (2:1-10)

4. Union of Jews and Gentiles (2:11-22)

5. Paul as Interpreter of the Revealed Mystery (3:1-13)

6. Paul's Prayer for the Church (3:14-19)

7. Concluding Doxology (3:20-21)

C. Part Two: Exhortations to Worthy Conduct (4:1-6:20)

1. Unity and Diversity in the Church (4:1-16)

2. Christian and Non-Christian Conduct (4:17-5:20)

3. Code of Conduct for the Household of God (5:21-6:9)

4. Christian life as Warfare with Evil (6:10-20)

D. Conclusion: Personal News Blessing (6:21-24)

Ephesian Highlights

This was written [by Paul at Rome?] about the same time as that to the Colossians, which in many points it resembles.

It is simply a letter springing from Paul's love to the church and his earnest desire that they should be fully instructed in the profound doctrines of the gospel. It contains (1) the salutation (1:1, 2); (2) a general description of the blessings the gospel reveals, as to their source, means by which they are attained, purpose for which they are bestowed, and their final result, with a fervent prayer for the further spiritual enrichment of the Ephesians (1:3-2:10); (3) "a record of that marked change in spiritual position which the Gentile believers now possessed, ending with an account of the writer's selection to and qualification for the apostolate of heathendom, a fact so considered as to keep them from being dispirited, and to lead him to pray for enlarged spiritual benefactions on his absent sympathizers" (2:12-3:21); (4) a chapter on unity as undisturbed by variousity of gifts (4:1-16); (5) special injunctions bearing on ordinary life (4:17-6:10); (6) the imagery of a spiritual warfare, mission of Tycicus, and valedictory blessing (6:11-24).

Planting of the church at Ephesus. Paul's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts 18:19-21. The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by Apollos (24-26) and Aquila and Priscilla.

On his second visit, early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus "three years," for he found it was the key to the western provinces of Asia Minor. Here "a great door and effectual" was opened to him (1 Cor. 16:9), and the church was established and strengthened by his assiduous labours there (Acts 20:20, 31).

From Ephesus as a centre the gospel spread abroad "almost throughout all Asia" (19:26). The word "mightily grew and prevailed" despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered.

On his last journey to Jerusalem the apostle landed at Miletus, and summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them his remarkable farewell charge (Acts 20:18-35), expecting to see them no more.

Notice these parallels between this epistle and the farewell at Miletus -

(1.) Acts 20:19 - Eph. 4:2. The phrase "lowliness of mind" occurs nowhere else.

(2.) Acts 20:27 - Eph. 1:11. The word "counsel," as denoting the divine plan, occurs only here and Hb 6:17.

(3.) Acts 20:32 - Eph. 3:20. The divine ability.

(4.) Acts 20:32 - Eph. 2:20. The building upon the foundation.

(5.) Acts 20:32 - Eph. 1:14, 18. "The inheritance of the saints."

Place and date of the writing of the letter. If from Paul's own hand, it was written from Rome during his first imprisonment (3:1; 4:1; 6:20), and probably soon after his arrival there, about the year 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus.

There seems to have been no special occasion for the writing of this letter. Paul's object was plainly not polemical. No errors had sprung up in the church which he sought to point out and refute. The object of the apostle is "to set forth the ground, the cause, and the aim and end of the church of the faithful in Christ. He speaks to the Ephesians as a type or sample of the church universal." The church's foundations, its course, and its end, are his theme.

In the Epistle to the Romans, Paul writes from the point of view of justification by the imputed righteousness of Christ; here he writes from the point of view of union to the Redeemer, and hence of the oneness of the true church of Christ.

Relation between this epistle and that to the Colossians. The close relation as to style and subject between the epistles to Colosse and Ephesus must strike every reader. Their precise relation to each other has given rise to much discussion. The great probability is that the epistle to Colosse was written first; parallel passages in Ephesians have the appearance of being expansions from the epistle to Colosse.

The style of this epistle corresponds with the state of the apostle's mind at the time of writing. Overjoyed with the message of their faith and holiness (Eph. 1:15), and transported with God's astonishing love towards the Gentiles in making them partakers of all the benefits of Christ's death, he soars in his sentiments on those grand subjects.

The problem of Ephesians is closely related to that of Colossians, since both appeal to cosmic imagery to describe the universal significance of Christ. Can Paul have written in this way? Some cannot imagine that in his lifetime Paul thought of Christ in such ways, and therefore see these letters as written by some later "Paulinist," claiming Paul's inheritance and writing in the form of "captivity epistles," ostensibly coming from Paul from prison.

Whoever he was, the author believed that all are saved and reconciled through Christ, who has made both Jew and Gentile one and has "broken down the dividing wall of hostility," bringing peace and unity.

Raymond Brown tended toward the pseudonymity view, but prudently added that while Paul's undisputed letters in the 50's show a man wrestling with the issues of the return of Christ and the general fate of Christians, and with the Jewish-Christian insistence upon circumcision, "we do not know what happened to Paul by way of theological change in the 60s just before he died" (Intro. N.T. 633). He views Ephesians as post-Pauline, since its outlook is so different from that of the last undisputed letters and feels that it comes from disciples who came to see in the unified church of Jews and Gentiles in the Asia minor of the 90s the fulfilment of the work begun by Paul.

Notes on Philippians

Origin and Purpose
Paul's Spirituality
From three separate Letters
Notable Passages
Detailed Outline
On Philippians

Origin and Purpose

While there is no scholarly doubt expressed against the Pauline authorship of this text, many suggest that instead of being originally one single letter it is a composite of several shorter fragments, written at different times and in different circumstances. The main discrepancy is between chapters 2 and 3, where after a calm second chapter he launches a sharp polemic in chapter 3 (Watch out for the dogs... who would mutilate your flesh!). Another problem is how to link the passage beginning with 4:10 (on their welcome gift to him in prison) with Paul's earlier joyful acceptance of his suffering. These transitions may be places where previously existing genuine Pauline fragments were just sutured together by an editor.

Paul's Spirituality

Whether it is one letter or composite, the text has many beautiful passages and certainly shows us some of the most attractive aspects of Paul's own spirituality. He is grateful to the Christians of Philippi for their fellowship (koinwnia) with him in the spread of the Gospel (1:5ff); he continues his efforts even while in prison; promotes a high moral ideal of striving for whatever is noble, whatever is worthwhile, as well as encouraging them to rejoice in the Lord always (4:4). Also, in a tactful passage (4:2), he tries to bring gentle mediation to bear on the conflict between Evodia and Synteche, two valiant Christian women whom he urges his yoke-mate, a bishop or leader in Philippi, to help. Earlier, there is his warm exhortation toward a strong and active sense of community (2:1-4), reinforced by quoting what may be an early Christian hymn about the humiliation (kenosis) and exaltation of Jesus who is now made the Lord of the universe and worshipped by the whole of the cosmos (2:5-11).

For many, the most moving passage in the letter is the autobiographical description (3:4-17) of Paul's conversion from a legalist to a personalist religion, based on devotion to Christ: I strive to make it my own, because Christ Jesus has made me his own. Although imperfect, I press on for the goal of the heavenly call, sure that his true identity, his citizenship is lodged in heaven.

From three separate Letters

If the theory of Philippians as an amalgam of pieces is correct, its first chapter can reasonably be dated during an imprisonment in Ephesus in the year 53 or 54. The theme of mutual joy (1:1-3, 4:4-7) may be from a second and somewhat later letter. The third section (3:2 to 4:3) on the danger caused by outsiders who wishes to penetrate the Philippian congregation with an anti-Pauline theology would be still later. The frequent visits between Paul and the Philippians referred to in the correspondence points rather toward Ephesus than Rome as the place of imprisonment.

At 4:8-9 Paul links his own example to a positive desciption of the ethical values and virtues he preaches (as in 1 Cor 11:1), and shows his striving as a pattern to be imitated. This tendency - also present in his final speech at Miletus, in Acts 20:17ff - makes the letter read like a testament written with an awareness of impending death or martyrdom. However, at 1:19ff, he is confident of coming out safe from prison, to continue his apostolic work. In either case, he is happy to leave his destiny in the hands of the Lord.

Notable Passages

Paul's confidence in prison (1:19ff)

Lives worthy of the Gospel (1:27ff)

Have the Mind of Christ (2:5ff)

Salvation must be "Worked Out" (2:12ff)

What Paul has lost and gained (3:4bff)

"Pressing On" (3:12ff)

Be of one mind!

Rejoice in the Lord (4:4ff)

Detailed Outline

This Outline incorporates Jerome Murphy-O'Connor's analysis, distinguishing in Philippians portions from three originally separate letters of Paul (Letters A, B and C) that have been joined into a single manuscript.

A. Introduction (1:1-11) (Letter B)

1. Opening Formula-Address Greeting (1:1-2)

2. Thanksgiving (1:3-8)

3. Prayer (1:9-11)

B. Part I: News and Instructions (1:12-3:1a) (Letter B)

1. Paul's Own Situation (1:12-26)

2. Exhortation for the Community (1:27-2:18)

a) Unity and Steadfastness (1:27-30)

b) Humility and Selflessness (2:1-11)

c) Obedience and Witness to the World (2:12-18)

3. Announcements re. Timothy and Epaphroditus (2:19-30)

4. Conclusion (3:1a)

C. Part II: Warning against False Teachers (3:1b-4:1) (Letter C)

D. Part III: Exhortations to Unity, Joy, Peace (4:2-9)

1. Call to Unity (4:2-3) (Lt C)

2. Call to Joy and Peace of Mind (4:4-7) (Lt B)

3. Call to Imitation of Paul (4:8-9) (Lt C)

E. Part IV: Thanks for the Community's Gift (4:10-20) (Letter A)

F. Conclusion (4:21-23) (Lt B)

To note, in Philippians

This was written by Paul during the two years when he was "in chains" in Rome (Phil. 1:7-13), probably early in the year 62 A.D. or in the end of 61.

The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messenger, with contributions to meet the necessities of the apostle; and on his return Paul sent back with him this letter. With this precious communication Epaphroditus sets out on his homeward journey. "The joy caused by his return, and the effect of this wonderful letter when first read in the church of Philippi, are hidden from us.

And we may almost say that with this letter the church itself passes from our view. To-day, in silent meadows, quiet cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site of what was once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the home of the most attractive church of the apostolic age. But the name and fame and spiritual influence of that church will never pass. To myriads of men and women in every age and nation the letter written in a dungeon at Rome, and carried along the Egnatian Way by an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light divine and a cheerful guide along the most rugged paths of life" (Professor Beet).

The church at Philippi was the first-fruits of European Christianity. Their attachment to the apostle was very fervent, and so also was his affection for them. They alone of all the churches helped him by their contributions, which he gratefully acknowledges (Acts 20:33-35; 2 Cor. 11:7-12; 2 Thess. 3:8). The pecuniary liberality of the Philippians comes out very conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a characteristic of the Macedonian missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully prove. It is remarkable that the Macedonian converts were, as a class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2); and the parallel facts, their poverty and their open-handed support of the great missionary and his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present day the missionary liberality of poor Christians is, in proportion, really greater than that of the rich" (Moule's Philippians, Introd.).

The contents of this epistle give an interesting insight into the condition of the church at Rome at the time it was written. Paul's imprisonment, we are informed, was no hindrance to his preaching the gospel, but rather "turned out to the furtherance of the gospel." The gospel spread very extensively among the Roman soldiers, with whom he was in constant contact, and the Christians grew into a "vast multitude." It is plain that Christianity was at this time making rapid advancement in Rome.

The doctrinal statements of this epistle bear a close relation to those of the Epistle to the Romans. Note also Phil. 3:20 with Eph. 2:12, 19, where the church is presented under the idea of a city or commonwealth for the first time in Paul's writings. The personal glory of Christ is also set forth in almost parallel forms of expression in Phil. 2:5-11, compared with Eph. 1:17-23; 2:8; and Col. 1:15-20. "This exposition of the grace and wonder of His personal majesty, personal self-abasement, and personal exaltation after it," found in these epistles, "is, in a great measure, a new development in the revelations given through St. Paul" (Moule). Other minuter analogies in forms of expression and of thought are also found in these epistles of the Captivity.

Notes on the Epistle to the Colossians

Origin and Purpose
Post-Pauline authorship
The Cosmic Christ
Detailed Outline
Dictionary on Colossians

Origin and Purpose

The purpose of the letter to the Colossians is more certain than its authorship. It was directed against a Judaizing Gnostic heresy which worshipped intermediary beings (aeons) and gave prominence to ritual observances. This letter claims to be from Paul, though on this question of authorship the scholarly community is split down the middle. As J. Murphy O'Connor has wryly put it, "those who affirm Paul's authorship are rather more hesitant than those who deny it."

If Paul did write this letter, it would indeed represent some progress in his Christology, but that is not rulet out, if indeed he had leisure time while in prison to contemplate the fuller implications of the faith which he had promoted for so long: the all-sufficiency of Christ for our salvation?

Post-Pauline authorship

The case for post-Pauline authorship of this epistle is strongly made in the relevant article of the Encyclopedia Britannica, where, after pointing to differences in thought and vocabulary from the earlier letters it says, Colossians was written ostensibly by Paul from prison (in Ephesus) to a predominantly Gentile Christian congregation founded by his co-worker, Epaphras, at Colossae. The congregation was endangered by a heresy involving a philosophy that was connected with the elemental spirits of the universe to which men seemed to be bound, with circumcision, feast days and food laws, visions, and an asceticism that was not only false in its piety but foreign to the Christian faith.

The Cosmic Christ

The motivation giving rise to the epistle was to oppose these syncretistic and Judaizing tendencies. To add weight to his arguments, the Paulinist author claimed the authority of Paul's apostolic status, but applied Paul's theology at a new level, enlarging its horizons to included the whole universe.

In this epistle, the whole world is said to be subject to the glorified Christ, and gains its full meaning, aim, and goal in the Christian church, which is Christ's body, over which he is the head. Many today consider that such a transformation of Paul's earlier theology cannot be the work of Paul himself, and that therefore, Colossians cannot be dated or placed with certainty, before the end of the 1st century.

Detailed Outline

A. Greeting (1:1-2)

B. Thanksgiving and Prayer (1:3-23)

1. Thanksgiving (1:3-8)

2. Prayer (1:9-11)

3. Application Transition (1:12-14)

4. Hymn (1:15-20)

5. Application and Transition (1:21-23)

C. Paul's ministry (1:24-2:5)

1. The Apostle's Hardships (1:24-26)

2. The Mystery Revealed and Preached (1:27-29)

3. Application and Transition (2:1-5)

D. Life in the Body of Christ, in Teaching (2:6-3:4)

1. The Tradition of Christ Jesus (2:6-15)

2. The Human Tradition (2:16-23)

3. Life-giving Union with Christ (3:1-4)

E. Life in the Body of Christ, in Practice (3:5-4:6)

1. Vices to remove (3:5-11)

2. Virtues to practice (3:12-17)

3. Household Code (3:18-4:1)

4. Missionary Spirit in the Community (4:2-6)

F. Personal Messages; Closing (4:7-18)

Dictionary: Colossians

This may have been written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment there (Acts 28:16, 30), about the same time as his Epistle to the Ephesians. Like some of his other epistles (e.g., those to Corinth), it was written in response to information which had been conveyed to him of the internal state of the church there (Col. 1:4-8).

Contents - The Epistle is mainly polemical. Its object was to counteract false teaching. A large part of it is directed against innovators who attempted to combine the doctrines of Oriental mysticism and asceticism with Christianity, thereby promising the disciples the enjoyment of a higher spiritual life and a deeper insight into the world of spirits. Paul argues against such teaching, showing that in Christ they had all they needed for deep union with God.

He expounds the majesty of his redemption. The mention of the "new moon" and "sabbath days" (2:16) shows also that there were here Judaizing teachers who sought to draw away the disciples from the simplicity of the gospel.

Like Paul's other epistles, this consists of two parts, a doctrinal and a practical.

(1.) The doctrinal part (1-2) warns against being drawn away from Him in whom lived all the fulness of the Godhead, and who was the head of all spiritual powers. Christ was the head of the body of which they were members; and if they were truly united to him, what needed they more?

(2.) The practical part (3-4) enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to seek things that are above (3:1-4), to mortify every evil principle, and to put on the new man (3:5-14).

Tychicus was the bearer of the letter, as he was also of that to the Ephesians and to Philemon, and he would tell them of the state of the apostle (4:7-9). After friendly greetings (4:10-14), he bids them exchange this letter with the one he had sent to the neighbouring church of Laodicea. He closes this brief but striking epistle with his usual autograph salutation.

We have noted above remarkable resemblance between this epistle and that to the Ephesians, and the similar difficulty of determining whether they came from Paul himself, or some of his successors in the 90s of the first century.

Notes on 1 Thessalonians

Paul's Visit to Thessalonica
A very personal Letter
Doctrinal and Moral Content
Detailed Outline
On 1 Thessalonians

Paul's Visit to Thessalonica

Written from Corinth in the year 51 A.D, this is surely the earliest of Paul's surviving epistles to Christian communities. The story in Acts (17:1ff) of his visit to Thessalonica provides some background to what he writes back to this community, a few months later. With his companions, Silas and Timothy, he spent a few weeks in this important city on the Via Egnatia, shortly after leaving Philippi, and gained some converts there, from among both Jews and converts visiting the synagogue. A rising tide of Jewish opposition caused them to leave Thessalonica in haste, and they proceeded into the southern province of Achaia, stopping briefly for an unsuccessful visit in Athens before proceeding to Corinth.

A very personal Letter

During this time, Timothy was sent back to check on the tense situation in Thessalonica, since Paul was anxious about the survival of the church there. When he brought back the good news that the crisis has been successfully weathered, Paul's great relief is poured out in the letter we know as 1 Thessalonians.

More than half of the letter - the first 3 chapters - is devoted to the relationship of loving concern that Paul feels towards his converts. They give purpose to his life, and joy to his heart. He mentions them in his prayers, constantly (1:2) for they are an example to all the believers in Macedonia and in Achaia (1:7). After the persecution they have gone through, Paul's concern for them was like that of a nurse, tenderly caring for her own children (2:7). They are his hope [and] joy [and] crown of boasting and he declares emotionally, you are our glory and joy (2:19-20)

Doctrinal and Moral Content

While, on the whole, Timothy's report was encouraging, it also showed that various errors and misunderstandings regarding the implications of Paul's teaching had come to the fore among the Thessalonians. He wrote this letter to assure them of his ongoing interest in their welfare (2:13-20), but also to correct these errors, and to exhort them to further purity of life, reminding them that their sanctification was God's own desire for them (4:3). He offers a motive of faith and trust, in the face of some bereavements suffered in the community (4:13-18).

Finally, he repeats in writing what had clearly been an important part of the message preached during his visit with them, about the shortness of present age, and the expected return of the Lord Jesus, for whom we must always be ready (1 Th 5:1ff).

Detailed Outline

A. Salutation (1:1)

B. Thanksgiving (1:2-3:13)

1. The Thessalonians' Reception of Paul's Message (1:2-2:12)

2. Their Faith, Patience Perseverance (2:13-3:13)

C. Exhortation to Virtue (4:1-12)

1. On Chastity (4:1-8)

2. On Charity (4:9-12)

D. Eschatology (4:13-5:11)

1. The Expected Parousia of Christ (4:13-18)

2. Watchful for His Coming (5:1-11)

E. Christian Living (5:12-22)

1. Need for Order in the Community (5:12-13)

2. Virtues to be Practiced (5:14-22)

F. Closing Wishes; Greeting (5:23-28)

The spirit of 1 Thessalonians

The first epistle to the Thessalonians was the first of Paul's epistles. It was written from Corinth, where he stayed a "long time" (Acts 18:11, 18), early in the period of his residence there, about the end of 52 A.D.

His occasion for writing was the return of Timothy from Macedonia, bearing news from Thessalonica regarding the state of the church there (Acts 18:1-5; 1 Thess. 3:6). While the report of Timothy was encouraging, it also showed that some misunderstandings regarding Paul's teaching had arisen. In this letter he seeks to correct these errors, and exhorts them to purity of life, reminding them that their sanctification was what God wanted of them.

The second epistle to the Thessalonians was probably also written from Corinth, and not many months after the first. Paul had received news that the spirit of his first epistle had been misunderstood, especially with reference to the second coming of Christ. The Thessalonians had embraced the idea "the day of Christ was at hand," and expected that this was to happen very soon. This is corrected (2:1-12), by announcing what must take place before Christ would come.

In fact, the sharp contrast between the two letters regarding the delay of the parousia alerts us to some odd features of 2 Thess., such as the lack of personal, concrete allusions and the peculiar repetition of phraseology from 1 Thess.; many now judge that the second letter is post-Pauline, although it is difficult to offer a plausible circumstance for the writing of the letter, if it is pseudonymous.

Notes on 2 Thessalonians

Origin and Purpose
Is it post-Pauline?
Detailed Outline

Origin and Purpose

The second epistle to the Thessalonians was probably also written from Corinth, and not many months after the first. The occasion for writing this epistle was Paul's hearing how his first epistle had been misunderstood, with reference to the awaited second coming of Christ. The converts in Thessalonica had gathered from Paul that the day of Christ was at hand, that it was so imminent as to make all other things irrelevant. This over-heated expectancy is corrected (2:1-12), and people are urged to get on with the ordinary duties of life.

To lessen their excitement about the Lord's coming (parousia), the apostle refers in an obscure prophecy a dark and major apostasy that must first happen. He speaks of a rebellion that will come, in which some lawless one will be revealed (2:3). Various explanations of these expressions have been proposed, which must necessarily remain speculative.

Is it post-Pauline?

In fact, the sharp contrast between the two letters regarding the delay of the parousia has alerted scholars to other odd features of 2 Thess., such as the lack of personal, references and the almost exact repetition of some of the phraseology from 1 Thess. Based on these, many now judge that the second letter is post-Pauline, although it is very hard to offer a plausible circumstance for the writing of the letter, if it is in fact pseudonymous.

After carefully weighing the points for and against attributing this letter to Paul, even the judicious Raymond E. Brown found it impossible to decide, observing that although the tide of scholarship has come to regard it as not written by Paul, biblical studies are not helped by being certain about the uncertain (Intro. N.T. 596). Jerome Murphy O'Connor has opined that the arguments against the authenticity of 2 Thess. are so weak that it is preferable to accept it as a genuine Pauline letter. For him, the most natural explanation of the similarity of contents between the two letters is because circumstances forced Paul to return to the same subjects; and then, in treating identical issues it is inevitable that the same language should reappear.

Detailed Outline

A. Opening Formula (1:1-2)

B. Persecution: a Test, Leading to Future Glory (1:3-12)

C. Proper Understanding of the Parousia (2:1-17)

1. The Lord's Triumph over Deception (2:1-15)

2. Prayer for Strengthening (2:16-17)

D. For the Good of the Faith (3:1-16)

1. Pray for Spread of Faith, God's Protection (3:1-5)

2. Resist Idleness Disunity (3:6-16)

E. Final Greetings (3:17-18)

Notes on The Pastoral Epistles

Why they are called The Pastorals"
Church order, as promoted in these Letters
Authorship: Pauline or Pseudonymous?

Why they are called The Pastorals"

The two letters of Paul to Timothy, and his letter to Titus, have since the 18th century been collectively called Pastoral Letters (a name coined by Paul Anton and D.N. Berdot), on account of their tone and content. They are addressed to pastors appointed by Paul, and deal principally with matters of leadership, church discipline and the suppression of heresies. The two pastors, otherwise well-known as his fellow missionaries through the Acts and in other Pauline letters, are urged to lead the local churches by their example, to preach sound doctrine, appoint worthy elders to positions of influence in the community.

Church order, as promoted in these Letters

There is an acute sense through these letters, of the disruptive influence of Gnostic ideas (so-called knowledge, 1 Tim 6:20) and Jewish myths (myths and endless genealogies, 1 Tim 1:4.) In response to these dangers, the author urges his two assistants to exercise vigilant pastoral leadership, and gives many practical instances of how this is to be done.

The image of the church expressed in these three epistles is more practical than mystical. It is a visibly ordered society, whose members are divided into categories (bishops, elders, deacons, older and younger folk, men and women, free people and slaves), for each of whom the apostle sets norms of behaviour. The level of virtue he prescribes places a priority upon moderation, temperance and decorum, all of which add up to that eusebeia (piety) favoured in the Pastorals. The church order in these Letters is not yet that of Ignatius of Antioch (c. 110 A.D.), with its monarchical bishop attended by subordinate elders and deacons. Robert Karris describes the Pastorals as reflecting rather the somewhat loose structure evident in 1 Clement (c. 95), in which bishops and elders exist side by side... They reflect the transition period between Paul, who taught that the church was animated with diverse charismata, and Ignatius, who insisted that oneindividual be in charge of the churches of a distinct area. The leader' task ... is to guard the deposit of faith, and to be apt teachers of sound doctrine. (Companion to the Bible, 576)

Authorship: Pauline or Pseudonymous?

This model of church and of Christian behaviour, summarised in the aspiration that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and dignity (1 Tim 2:2) has been seen by some commentators as the essence of Paul's practicality and commonsense, as he launched the church upon her long march through history. Ceslaus Spicq noted Paul's unmistakable organisational gifts and called him an expert architect, building the house of God (1969). For others, this kind of church is too patriarchal, too bourgeois and too structured to be really that projected by St. Paul - would the apostle who described the church as the Body of Christ (1 Cor. 12:12ff) have later settled upon so static a model as the pillar and bulwark of the truth (1 Tim 3:15)? Mainly for this, but also on account of differences of style, vocabulary and other theological emphases, a majority of commentators nowadays treat the Pastorals as post-Pauline epistles, written by an admirer intent on preserving Paul's heritage within a changed environmen, and seeking to give greater authority to the new church structures by pseudonymously invoking Paul's name.

The complicated issue of whether or not to ascribe the Pastoral Epistles to St. Paul is carefully examined from various angles by R. E. Brown (Introduction to N.T. 662-671). While admitting the difficulty of providing a plausible explanation for their pseudepigraphical composition, he tends to go with the majority modern view which would date these letters between 80 and 100, and interprets them as having some continuity with Paul's own ministry and thought, but not so close a continuity as is manifested in Col and Eph and even II Thess (668).

Jerome Murphy O'Connor judges that for the Pastoral Epistles to win acceptance, there must have been a very solid link with Pauline circles. He supports the argument proposed by Michael Prior (1989), that the only scenario capable of explaining the acceptance of the Pastorals is the authenticity of at least one of the three letters. Were one to have been long known and recognized, then the delayed 'discovery' of two others with the same general pattern could be explained in a variety of convincing ways (Critical Life, 357). In this view, the (authentic) second letter to Timothy, written during Paul's second - and final - imprisonment in Rome (67 A.D.) is the nucleus to which the other two texts, written to preserve the Apostle's legacy from dissolution, were later attached.

Notes on 1 Timothy

Title and Theme

This letter is addressed to Timothy, as leader of the church in Ephesus, assigned by Paul. It gives him detailed guidance about the carrying out of his pastoral duties. An ideal of a well-ordered, sober and law-abiding church is drawn up, with careful selection of people for ministry, and a strong devotion to handing on the apostolic tradition, untainted by the incipient Gnostic heresy.

For the questions concerning pseudonymous, post-Pauline authorship of this letter, and possible motive for such pseudonymity, see above.

Notable Passages

Former persecutor, now dedicated apostle (1:12ff)
God's will, that all should be saved (2:1ff)
Ideal bishop: a reliable family man (3:1ff)
The church of the living God (3:14)
Everything created by God is good (4:4)
Do not neglect the gift that is in you (4:14)
A little wine, for your health's sake (5:23)

Detailed Outline

A. Introduction: Warning against false teachers (1:3-20)

1. Description of the false teachers (1:3-7)

2. The meaning and value of the Law (1:8-11)

3. Paul's own call to preach the Gospel (1:12-17)

4. Timothy must combat the false teachers (1:18-20)

B. Worship, Discipline and Church Leadership (2:1 - 3:16)

1. The community's conduct at worship (2:1-15)

i. Prayer intentions (2:1-7)

ii. How men and women should act, at worship (2:8-15)

2. The qualities of bishops and deacons (3:1-13)

3. The mystery entrusted to the Church (3:14-16)

C. Practices of False Teachers (4:1-11)

1. The basic goodness of creation (4:1-5)

2. How to oppose false teachings, on this matter (4:6-11)

D. Practical advice to Timothy, on leadership (4:11 - 6:2)

1. Exemplary life and diligent ministry (4:11-16)

2. Pragmatics: dealing with different groups in the community (5:1 - 6:2)

Elders, Widows, Younger Women, Elders, Sinners; health; Slaves.

E. Conclusions (6:3-21)

1. Vices of the false teachers, contrasted with virtue (6:3-10)

2. Timothy exhorted to exemplary holiness (6:11-16)

3. The right use of wealth (6:17-19)

Final exhortation, to guard the deposit of faith (6:20-21)

Purpose of 1 Timothy

Paul in this epistle speaks of himself as having left Ephesus for Macedonia (1:3), and if this epistle is genuinely by Paul himself, it would have been written in some city in that region, possibly Philippi. During the interval between his first and second imprisonments he may have visited the scenes of his former labours in Greece and Asia, and then found his way into Macedonia, whence he wrote this letter to Timothy, whom he had left behind in Ephesus. If the writing really is from Paul, it cannot have been later than 66 A.D. or 67. Another view, more widely held today, is discussed above.

Contents: (1) counsels to Timothy regarding the worship and organization of the Church, and the responsibilities resting on its several members; and

(2) exhortation to faithfulness in maintaining the truth amid surrounding errors.

Notes on 2 Timothy

Notable Passages
Detailed Outline
On 2 Timothy

Notable Passages

The gift of God that is within you (1:6)
Handing on the Deposit of Faith (2:1)
Soldier, athlete, farmer for Christ (2:3)
Qualities of the Lord's servant (2:24)
Paul's Final Testament (4:6ff)

Detailed Outline

A. Address and Greeting (1:1-2)

B. Thanksgiving (1:3-5)

C. Calling Timothy to Renew his Spiritual Gifts (1:6-2:13)

1. Introduction: Rekindle the Divine Charism (1:6-7)

2. power Enables the Endurance of sufferings (1:8-12)

3. Love Enables Fidelity to Paul (1:14-18)

4. Steadfastly Hand On the Gospel (2:1-10)

a) Need to Preserve the Deposit of Faith (2:1-2)

b) Three Examples for Imitation (2:3-6)

c) Paul's Exemplary Fidelity to Christ (2:7-10)

5. Summary: the Reliable Saying (2:11-13)

D. True Teaching vs False Teaching (2:14-4:8)

1. Four Antitheses to Distinguish True from False Teachers (2:14-26)

2. Resources for Church Leaders in Evil Times (3:1-17)

False Teachers contrasted with Paul's Virtuous Example (3:1-12)

False Teachers contrasted with the Truth of Scripture (3:13-17)

3. Concluding Exhortation (4:1-8)

E. Paul's Situation and Needs (4:9-21)

1. Timothy is to Come to Paul (4:9-13)

2. Paul's Legal Situation (4:14-18)

3. Greetings Other Matters (4:19-21)

F. Closing Blessings (4:22)

Purpose of writing 2 Timothy

This appears to have been written a year or so after the first, and probably from Rome, where Paul was for a second time a prisoner; it was delivered to Timothy by Tychicus. In it Paul begs Timothy to come to him before winter, and to bring Mark with him (See Phil. 2:22). He was anticipating that "the time of his departure was at hand" (2 Tim. 4:6), and he exhorts his "son Timothy" to all diligence and steadfastness, and to patience under persecution (1:6-15), and to a faithful discharge of all the duties of his office (4:1-5), with all the solemnity of one who was about to appear before the judge of the living and the dead.

Notes on Titus

Title and Theme
Texts to Note
Detailed Outline
On Titus

Title and Theme

(For general introduction to the Pastoral Epistles, see above).

In form and content, this letter is very similar to 1 Timothy, but is addressed to Titus in Crete. It shows the same main concern, for a well-governed church. Paul's advice to Titus, like that to Timothy, shows signs of developing concern for a solid institutional framework, so that good moral order may be fostered in the community of faith.

Texts to Note

A bishop, as God's steward (1:7ff)
Duties of the Christian household (2:1-10)
The grace that enables holy living (2:11-15)
Good citizens, under the Spirit of Christ (3:1)
When the kindness of God our Savior appeared (3:4)

Detailed Outline

A. Address and Greeting (1:1-4)

B. Leaders for the Church on Crete (1:5-9)

C. False Teaching vs. True Teaching (1:10-3:8)

1. The Nature of the False Teachers (1:10-16)

2. What the True Teacher must Teach (2:1-3:8)

i. Christian Duties Within the Household (2:1-15)

a) The Basic Charge (2:1)

b) Duties of the Household Members (2:2-10)

c) Reason: God's saving action (2:11-14)

d) The Basic Charge Restated (2:15)

ii. Christian Duties Within Society (3:1-8)

a) Duties (3:1-2)

b) Reason: God's saving action (3:3-8)

D. Strife and Division to be Avoided (3:9-11)

E. Business Matters; Closing Blessing (3:12-15)

Purpose of the letter to Titus

It was probably written about the same time as the first epistle to Timothy, with which it has many affinities. Both letters were addressed to persons left by the writer to preside in their respective churches during his absence. Both focus on the qualifications needed in those whom they should appoint to offices in the church; and the ingredients of this description are in both letters nearly the same. Timothy and Titus are cautioned against the same prevailing corruptions.

It was written after Paul's visit to Crete (Titus 1:5), which could not be the one referred to in Acts 27:7, when Paul was on his voyage to Rome as a prisoner, and where he continued a prisoner for two years. Perhaps, after his release, Paul sailed from Rome into Asia and took Crete by the way, and left Titus there "to set in order the things that were wanting." Then he went to Ephesus, where he left Timothy, and from Ephesus to Macedonia, where he wrote First Timothy, and then, heading back westward towards Rome, to Nicopolis in Epirus, from where he wrote to Titus, about 66 A.D. or 67.

Notes on Paul's Letter to Philemon

Theme and Date
Persuasive Tone
Detailed Outline
On Philemon

Theme and Date

This short letter was written from prison, to Philemon a wealthy Christian, asking him to mercifully accept back his runaway slave, Onesimus, who has met with Paul and received baptism. It shows Paul's persuasive skills at their best, as he marshalls a range of arguments to mollify the slave-owners wrath. Neither here nor elsewhere does Paul directly confront the evil of slavery. He simply takes it as a given of the way the world works. His doctrine of the equality of all in God's sight (Gal. 3:28) would however ultimately lead to the dismantling of the huge inequality that slavery represents.

"In this letter as in all ancient documents, many points remain uncertain (Paul Minear, in Companion to the Bible, 590). Still, the mention of Epaphras (v.23) suggests that the letter was sent to Colossae or nearby Laodicea (Col. 4:12ff). It can be dated either in the mid 50's (from an imprisonment of Paul at Ephesus), or more likely, in the early 60's (during his imprisonment at Rome). Ignatius of Antioch (Eph 1.3) says that the returned slave, Onesimus, later became bishop of Ephesus - which would be a total vindication of Paul's confidence in him.

Persuasive Tone

This letter is marked by its persistently persuasive tone. Writing from prison, and with little hope of release, Paul is in no position to command Philemon to receive back his runaway slave in a spirit of christian forgiveness. However, he uses various methods to win over the slave-owner to the required leniency; he calls Philemon our dear friend and co-worker (v. 1) and praises his love for all the saints and your faith toward the Lord Jesus (v. 5); a man whose obvious goodness refreshes the hearts of the saints (v. 7).

Paul's appeal is that of an old man, and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus (v. 8) - and one to whom Philemon owes a great spiritual debt (I say nothing about your owing me even your own self v.19). While writing to ask a favour, the apostle is confident of your obedience (v. 21) and even suggests that he may live to visit Philemon's house again, to personally see if his friend has granted his request (v. 22).

Detailed Outline

A. Greeting (1-3)

B. Thanksgiving for Philemon's Faith and Love (4-7)

C. Appeal to Philemon, to Welcome Onesimus (8-20)

How Useful Onesimus can be (11-16)

Reasons for Philemon to Agree (17-20)

D. Conclusion: Final Instructions, Greetings Blessing (21-25)

Uniqueness of Philemon

This Epistle was probably written from Rome at the same time as the epistles to the Colossians and Ephesians, and was sent also by Onesimus. It was addressed to Philemon and the members of his family.

It was written for the purpose of interceding for the runaway slave, Onesimus, who had deserted his master Philemon and been "unprofitable" to him. Paul had found Onesimus at Rome, and had there been instrumental in his conversion, and now he sends him back to his master with this letter.

This epistle has the character of a strictly private letter, and is the only one of such epistles preserved to us. It shows the apostle in a warm and personal light. He speaks with concern to persuade, rather than to exercise formal authority over his converts. He speaks simply as Christian to Christian, with that peculiar grace of humility and courtesy which should mark all true Christianity.